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ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



CLASS-BOOK OF IfflODS 



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Teachers and Students, 



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EDWARD B. SMITH, A. M. 



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UnWeD states of AMERICA. 



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ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



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GLASS-BOOK OF HEIODS 



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Teachers and Students, 
EDWAED B. SMITH, A. M. 



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COPYRIGHTED BY 

1883. 



PREFACE. 

I have written and printed this little book for /ny 
own convenience. I do not expect it to bring me either 
wealth or fame, but hope that it will lighten my labors 
in the school-room. Being a teacher of English Gram- 
mar in West Kentucky College, and having "a theory 
of my own" as to the way in which the subject should 
be taught, I have, from time to time, reduced to writ- 
ing such portions of my methods as admitted of it, and 
now venture to put into more convenient and perma- 
nent form the matter which for many years has been 
the basis of instruction rendered in classes unusually 
large. 

Believing that other teachers, especially such as pre- 
pare for their work at this institution, will esteem the 
plan of study here set forth worthy of a trial in their 
schools, I have arranged with the Institute Publishing 
(Company, of this place, to bring out an edition large 
enough to supply a reasonable demand. 

South Carrollton, Ky., August 1, 1882. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



GENERAL. 

LESS ROTE AND MORE REASON. 

That splendid linguist, Max Muller, in his Lectures 
on the Hcienee of Language, speaks of the "vigorous 
contest that is still carried on between great opposing 
principles" as a charm almost peculiar to the Science. 
"Scholars, even while engaged in the most minute 
inquiries, — while carrying the brick and mortar to 
build the walls of their new science,— must have their 
sword girded by their side, always ready to meet the 
enemy." 

When giants battle, pygmies— no match even for 
cranes— should keep at a safe distance. They may 
watch the fierce contest from afar, and, haply, profit 
in its results; but, as for mingling in the strife, of 
what avail would be their lances of straw ! Angels 
may 

"Rend up both rocks and hills, and ride the air 
In whirlwind," 

almost at will. Hercule*, enraged, found it but an in- 
fant's task to tear up by the roots the Thessalian pines ; 
but then, you know, he had Herculean strength. 
Typhoeus miglit presume to engage the gods, for his 
stature reached the sky, and he was able to hurl glow- 
ing rocks against heaven itself. 

The great mass of us humbler workers have little 
immediate knowedge of the wars which the giant 
''Science Builders ' are waging. Occasionally, indeed, 
we may "smell the battle afar off, ' and hear, faintly, 
"the thunder of the captains, and the shouting ;" but- 
all the better for us, no doubt— the tread-mill duties of 



INTRODUCTORY. 5 

our profession preclude all serious thought of mixing 
in the fray; and frequently, alas, we cease to care 
which way the tide of battle turns. But still we are 
gainers. The field is won ; the hills are leveled ; the 
trees are up-rooted ; the ground is prepared ; the foun- 
dations are laid deep; and, as the glittering turrets 
rise to pierce the sky, there is more brick and mortar 
for short-sighted pygmies (who hardly dream of the 
grandeur of the temple) to investigate. 

But he would err who should conclude that battles 
are fought among the clouds only, and at the surface 
all is harmony. Insects may not aspire to be protect- 
ors of continents, but millions of lives have been freely 
offered up in defense of an ant-hill against an invading 
swarm. Where is the earnest teacher, in college or 
public school, who does not wear constantly at his 
side a sword — albeit of lath, it may be — which he is 
ready to draw in defense of what he conceives to be 
the truth ? 

And do the contests in which he engages have no 
charm ? And do they afford no opportunity for grand 
tactics? There wants but some Thoreau, patiently to 
observe and faithfully to describe, to make the battles 
of ants absorbingly interesting and highly instructive 
to men. The Lilliputians have their petty despois, 
stupid bigots, mercenary hypocrits ; their noble heroes, 
and enduring martyrs. Is there no "progressive" 
teacher who, in the cause of grammar, has ''suffered 
for opinion's sake?'' Who scorns to follow blindly in 
his preceptor's path, but nobly claims it as his right, 
as far as within him lies, "to weigh and coiibider" and 
conclude for himself? He may not be able to trans- 
late inscriptions on monuments that have or.tlivcd 
history, nor to set forever at rest questions "whether 
languages had one or many beginnings, whether they 
can all be classified into families or no;" but he in- 



6 INTKODUCTORY. 

sists on thinking for himself when it comes to deter- 
mining the constructions of relative pronouns and 
infinitives occurring in the lesson he assigns to his 
class. 

Surely, we could ill afford to constrain our think- 
ing teachers within the old, narrow limits of rote and 
rule. 

Now, is not this spirit of manly independence and 
thoughtful inquiry, which, in teachers, is working 
such vast and rapid improvements in matter and 
method, worthy of encouragement in pupil as well? 
Shall we claim for ourselves the largest freedom, and 
require servility, more or less abject, in those we teach ! 
Will not the returns be great enough in all that goes 
to make up a well-trained mind, a symmetrical de- 
velopment, a nobiUty of character, to repay us for a 
little timely heed given to the conditions under which 
a healthy moral and intellectual growth takes place? 

OF GRAMMARS IN GENERAL. 

A great many years ago Lord Bacon made the fol- 
lowing classification of the books of his time: "Some 
books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and 
some few to be chewed and digested." This was be- 
fore book-making had becc)me a great branch of the in- 
dustry of every civilized nation on the globe; but, in 
the main, the classification holds good to-day. 

Since then English grammar, as a distinct science, 
has had birth; and of the myriads of volumes which 
annually issue from the clashing presses of English 
speaking nations no mean number are devoted to her 
growth and progress. Shall we assign all these to 
Bacon's third class? From Lindley Murray down, 
there probably has never been a writer on English 
Grammar whose work was not a valuable contribution 
to the literature of the forming science, and worthy of 
far better treatment at the hands of those who speak 



INTRODUCTORY. t 

our noble tongue than merely to be "tasted." Possi- 
bly the future holds, unwritten, the grammar, which, 
when produced, may be "swallowed' with impunity; 
but, at present, perhaps there is no grammar extant, 
which, in the opinion of many besides its author, ap- 
proaches perfection so near as to merit more than a 
careful sifting of its contents. 

OF THIS BOOK IN PARTICULAR. 

This book undertakes to render assistance in this 
"chewing and digesting" and sifting process. By its 
numerous references, excerpts, etc., it aims, within 
the limits of a hundred small pages, to furnish, upon 
every disputed point in English grammar, the con- 
flicting opinions of a large number of reputable au- 
thors, endeavoring to assist teacher and student in 
balancing the arguments and striking the golden mean. 
I am aware that it is becoming quite fashionable to 
urge as one of the peculiar merits of a text-book on 
grammar the fact that it deals with only those por- 
tions of the science which are well-settled. Authors, 
even of higher lessons in English, tell us that 
their books have not been written "to air crotchets or 
to resolve grammatical puzzles," which usually means 
that, aside from giving employment to printers and 
affording themselves the gratification of seeing their 
names in print, it would be hard to find an excuse — 
much less a reason — for their publications. To such an 
extent this practice on the part of authors of adhering 
to whatever is venerable has been carried that, as if 
the desire to understand and to improve were some- 
thing discreditable, many teachers disclaim all inter- 
est for technical or critical grammar, and would prob* 
ably regard one who should seek to excite such interest 
in nearly the same light that lawyers do those of their 
profession guilty of Champerty and Malnteiiance. I 
would not be understood to argue that the inscription 



8 INTRODUCTORY. 

"Entirely New" on the cover of a book should consti- 
tute for it a passport to public favor, nor that every 
teacher in the public schools of this country should 
esteem himself capable of deciding questions upon 
which learned students of language disagree: but, 
when the best we can say of a book is, that it contains 
nothing new, it is proper to ask Why written? and, if 
a teacher never leads his pupil to think beyond the 
text-book, Why teach ? In the one case, the author 
becomes a mere plagiarist ; in the other, the teacher 
becomes a mere over-seer. In this book I have en- 
couraged the utmost freedom of investigation and dis- 
cussion ; and though I can but wish that abler hands 
than mine had undertaken the task, I am yet hopeful 
that, in a small way, good will result from my eflforts. 
Of course, many errors and omissions have found 
their way into this first edition. I shall welcome 
criticism as regards both its matter and form, and 
trust that my teacher friends will thus aid me in 
making corrections and improvements. 

OF THE MERITS OF THE PLAN PROPOSED. 

The method is recommended, not because I have 
fancied it would succeed under favorable circum- 
stances, but from the fact that it has succeeded with 
every class of advanced students in which I have fol- 
lowed it. I know of no other plan whereby so much 
interest can be awakened, so much patient investiga- 
tion and searching analysis secured, so much earnest 
thought elicited. I know of no better practical drill 
in logic than that which the study of grammar, thus 
pursued, affords. 

PARTICULAR. 

THE REFERENCE LIBRARY. 

On pages 14, 15, 16 will be found a list of such books 
in the English Language Department of the West Ken- 



INTRODUCTORY. 9 

tucky College Library as are referred to in this work. 
Students at this institution have daily access to this 
Library, free of charge, and are expected to consult all 
the references given in any lesson. Care is taken at 
the outset to have the student understand that these 
books are but records of the researches and opinions 
of other men, — the results, many of them, of profound 
thought and long-continued labor, and, therefore, en- 
titled to great respect, but still the works of men,— 
and, throughout the course, the teacher is careful to 
know that the requisite amount of thinking, as well as 
reading, is being done. 

It is not expected that many public schools are 
fortunate enough to have libraries so extensive as to 
comprise all the books here given. The advantages 
of a good library are, of course, very great ; but be- 
cause these are not enjoyed, the method is not there- 
fore to be deemed impracticable. It can be followed 
very successfully with such books as energy will 
enable any public school teacher to collect at little 
outlay of money. The following suggestions on this 
point may not be out of place: 

1. Establish the Reference L'brary at once, if you 
have only two books to put into it. These will serve 
as a nucleus. 

2. Explain its importance to your students, and in- 
vite their assistance. The fathers, mothers, brothers, 
sisters, uncles, and aunts of the children, once attend- 
ed school. Perhaps they have preserved the books 
they used, and would gladly donate them to the 
school — especially, since they have an opportunitj'^ of 
doing so much real, practical good thereby. 

3. Sometimes a book not donated noay be rented for 
a term. Never borrow. The books are to be used, and 
use wears and tears. 

4. Frequently, there is money due the school in a 



10 INTRODUCTORY. 

general way which may be collected and applied to 
the purchase of books ; and frequently a subscription 
paper (with liberal sums opposite the names of teach- 
ers and trustees, of course) may be circulated with 
profit. Invest the money thus obtained in the first 
twenty-five or thirty books given on pages 14, 15, and 
you are pretty well equipped. Invest through some 
public-spirited dealer, or through Robert Clark & Co., 
Cincinnati, who will allow a fair discount on books 
purchased for such a purpose. Frequently, publishers 
will give good discounts to teachers purchasing for 
their schools. 

5. Have a place for the books— one that is easy of 
access for all the members of the class. In this, as in 
everything else, be governed by good sense and the 
circumstances of the case. "A hammer is the best 
instrument to drive a nail with, but it can be done 
with a bar of iron, or a rock;" and, though an ex- 
pensive book-cupboard is usually a fine place tor 
books, a very neat and inexpensive one may be made 
of a dry-goods box. 

6. Aa soon as you have made a start in collecting 
books, begin using them. Require your pupils to con- 
sult them in preparing every lesson. They will thus 
see the importance of extending the list ; and, as be- 
fore intimated, their hearty co-operation is invaluable. 

THE RECITATION. 

What the heart and lungs are to circulation, the 
recitation is to study. At the recitation, bubbles of 
conceit are to be pricked, bad habits of thought and 
expression broken up, proper ones formed, erroneous 
notions corrected, dark points illumined, obscure ones 
made clear, important ones made duly impressive, 
and the whole current of study purified and directed 
into proper channels, How best to accomplish this 



INTRODUCTORY. 11 

is ever the greatest pioblem in school tactics; and 
happy is he whose profound knowledge, nice percep- 
tion, versatility, and readiness enable him to solve it 
as often as presented. 

Perhaps the problem is met most often in the reci- 
tation of the grammar class. With few exceptions, 
the rule is that children dislil?e grammar, older stu- 
dents neglect it, and the weary teacher finds the reci- 
tation hour hanging heavily on his hands. 

Why thus? 

The reason is not to be found in the nature of the 
subject itself, though many cultured and wise men 
would have us believe it, "but from the manner in 
which its principles and facts are presented by text- 
books and teachers." What can be more formidable 
than the daily task (which many well-meaning teach- 
ers do not hesitate to prescribe) of storing the memory 
with page after i)age of dry grammatical facts, with 
no other purpose in view than parroting them off to 
the teacher at the recitation? How inspirational (?) 
is the conjugation of verbs, when thus pursued ! and 
with what lingering regret (?) does the average school- 
boy bid good-bye to the declension of pronouns ! The 
same circumstances, which render abortive the efforts 
of the beginner, prevent the advanced student from 
giving the subject that attention which its importance 
demands; and, failing to derive the expected benefic 
from its study, he afterward becomes of the number 
of those who "openly advise its banishment from the 
school-room." 

One of the first duties of a teacher, in regard to any 
study, is to disabuse his pupils of the notion that they 
are to learn a book, and bring them to understand 
that Ihey are to investigate a subject. If there is any 
principle of teaching to which this book gives special 
emphasis, it is the one just stated. In my opinion, no 



12 INTRODUCTORY. 

teacher who neglects this duty can hope to succeed 
with his grammar class; and few who discharge it 
faithfully will fail. 

A few practical suggestions as to modes of conduct- 
ing the recitation are here submitted : 

I. Always require pupils sufficiently far advanced 
to use this book to prepare their grammar lessons in 
writing. A great many reasons cau be given for this, 
chief among which are 

1. That it promotes habits of neatness ; 

2. That it affords a good practical drill in penmanship, 
punctuation, capitalization, spelling, etc ; 

3. That it begets care in the framing of sentences; 

4. That we remember longer, and recall more readily, 
what we have written ; 

5. That, where we are required to submit a written 
opinion, we are usually careful to know that it is 
correct ; 

6. That the teacher can thus know that an attempt 
has been made to master the lesson ; 

7. That the pupil's work is in better shape for exam- 
ination and criticism. 

II. When the lesson embraces outline work, it 
will be found expedient to have one pupil copy 
upon the black-board the outline he has made. This 
will ordinarily require two or three minutes, during 
which time the remaining members of the class can be 
discussing the outlines as they have them on paper. 
As soon as the work is on the black-board, let the 
discussion proceed according to the order there adopt- 
ed, all criticisms well-taken being carefully noted. 
After criticisms and discussions are over let the cor- 
rected outline be neatly written on the board. 

III. In parsing, it is rarely necessary to use the 
black-board,— the better plan being to have the one 
parsing read from his paper, while the rest note the 



INTRODUCTORY. 13 

points of difference between his work and theirs. Fre- 
quently it adds to the interest to have the students 
change papers, allowing each one who parses to read 
the work of another. 

IV. In analyzing, require every sentence to be dia- 
gramed on the board,— usually assigning all in the 
lesson at the beginning of the recitation. 

V. Encourage criticism and discussion, but do not 
let either consume too much time. If it becomes 
evident that a definite conclusion will not be reached 
in a reasonable time, suspend all discussion of the point 
till another day, requiring the participants to reduce 
their arguments to writing (numbering each argument, 
when practicable) and submit them to the teacher. 
If the point is an important one, five minutes of the 
next recitation may be devoted to its discussion. 

VI. Encourage free expression of honest conviction, 
but do not tolerate mere controversial talk. Do not 
allow the more forward to consume all the time allot- 
ted for discussion. Encourage the timid, by requiring 
their opinion, and treating it with respect. 

VII. Become a student yourself, that you may the 
better prepare for every recitation; and, if it should 
chance that you are in the wrong sometimes (as who 
of us is not frequently?), do not permit false pride to 
prevent an honest confession. Your pupils will esteem 
you more highly, and your example will be a valuable 
lesson to them. 

VIII. Finally, dare to encourage your pupils to ask 
all questions and face all grammatical problems in that 
spirit of candor which, while it will yield to nothing 
but reason, is ever open to conviction. 



KEY TO THE REFERENCES. 

The following works will be found in the English 
Language Department of the West Kentucky College 
Librarj^, to which all students at the institution have 
daily access free of charge. 

Of the first sixty-six books, those marked with the 
asterisk are referred to by the page. The references 
to the others are by sections : thus, 9 (27) means KerPs 
Comprehensive English Grammar (9 referring to the 
number of book in the list) and the 27th article; and 
5 (32 j refers to Raub's Practical English Grammar, 
page ^2 

Students having access to all the books here 
given should be required to consult all the references 
found in each Lesson. 

TEXT-BOOKS ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Holbrook's Complete English Grammar. 

2. Swinton's Progressive English Grammar. 

3. Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar. 

4. Sill's Practical Lessons in English. 

5. Raub's Practical English Grammar.* 

6. Hart's English Grammar and Analysis* 

7. Clark's English Grammar. 

8. Weld and Quackinbos's New English Grammar. 

9. Kirl's Comprehensive English Grammar. 

10. Kirl's Common School Gramaiar. 

11. Harvey's English Grammar. 

12. Butler's (Noble) Practical and Critical Grammar.* 

13. Ridpath's Inductive Grammar. 

14,* Green's (Samuel S.) English Grammar. 

15. Reed and Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English.* 

16. Bain's Higher English Grammar.* 

17. Bullions's Analytical and Practical English Gram- 

mar.* 



CLASS BOOK OF METHODS. 15 

18. Abbott's (E. A.) How to Tell the Parts of Speech. 

19. Bailey's (R. W.) English Grammar. 

20. Pinneo's Analytical Grammar of the English 

Language. 

21. Bell's Principles of Speech. 

22. Comly's English Grammar Made Easy.* 

23. Smith's (R. C.) English Grammar on the Pro- 

ductive System. 

24. Burns's English Grammar. 

25. Colegrove's Scientific English Grammar. 

26. Covell's Digest of Grammar. 

27. Kenyon's English Grammar. 

28. Lee and Hadley's Grammar.* 

29. Mary Marcet's Grammar.* 

30. Morrison's English Grammar. 

31. Siglar's Practical Grammar** 

32. Tancock's English Grammar. 

33. Vose's (J. E.) Grammar and Analysis.* 

34. Walker's (H. D.) Elements of Grammar. 

35. Tower's Common School Grammar. 

36. Tenney's (W. J) Grammatical Analyzer.* 

37. Wilson's (Joe.) English Grammar.* 

38. Well's (W. H.) Grammar. 

39. Welch's Analysis of the English Sentence.* 

40. Cruikshank's Analysis and Parsing.* 

41. Dalgleisch's Grammatical Analysis.* 

42. Berry's Analysis and Parsing.* 

43. Buehrle's Grammatical Praxis. 

44. Fewsmith's English Grammar. 

45. Henderson's Comprehensive Grammar.* 

46. Lee and Hadley's Grammar. 

47. Lindley Murray's Grammar.* 

48. Shepherd's (H. E) Elementary Grammar.* 

49. Smith's (H. D.) English Grammar Simplified.* 

50. Churchhill's New Grammar of the English Lan- 

guage. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

51. Bingham's Grammar of the English Language. 

52. Wood worth's Grammar Demonstrated. 

53. Allen's (D. C) Common School Grammar. 

54. Parkhurst's English Grammar for Beginners. 

55. Barton's Outlines of Grammar. 

56. Burtt's Practical Grammar. 

57. Chamberlain's English Grammar. 

58. Chandler's Grammar and Analysis. 

59. Gilmore's English Language. 

60. Goldsbury's English Grammar. 

61. Hadley's English Grammar. 

62. Holmes's Grammar. 

63. Lamar's Practical Grammar. 

64. Patterson's Elements of Grammar. 

65. Walker's (Wm.) A Treatise of English Particles. 

66. Adams's (F. P.) Diagrams and Analysis. 

The following are more extensive works, and though 
referred to less frequently are yet almost indispensable 
to teachers of large and advanced classes. 

67. Goold Brown's Grammar of English Grammars. 

68. William C. Fowler's English Grammar. 

69. Mulligan's Exposition of the Grammatical Struc- 

ture of the English Language. 

70. Morris's (R.) Historical English Grammar. 

71. Maetzner's English Grammar, 3 vols. 

As it is frequently desirable to refer to works on 
Rhetoric, Punctuation, etc., I have selected the fol- 
lowing as being reliable and in common use. 

72. Hart's Composition and Rhetoric. 

73. Day's Rhetorical Praxis. 

74. Hill's Principles of Rhetoric. 

75 Quackinbos's Composition and Rhetoric. 

76. Kirl's Composition and Rhetoric. 

77. Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. 
The following works are recommended for the teach- 
er's private library, though not unfrequently will he 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 17 

find them serviceable iii the class-room. The refer- 
ences are to pages. 

78. Trench's On the Study of Words. 

79. Mathews's Words, Their Use and Abuse. 

80. White's Words and Their Uses. 

81. Swinton's Rambles Among Words. 

82. gchlegel's Philosophy of Language. 

83. Harrison's On the English Language. 

84. Trench's English, Past and Present. 

85. Max Muller's Lectures on the Science of Lan- 

guage.— First Series. 
8b. Max Muller's Lectures on the Science of Lan- 
guage.— Second Series. 

87. Whitney's Language and the Study of Language. 

88. Marsh's Origin and Historj^ of the English Lan- 

guage. 

89. Marsh's Lectures on the English Language. 

90. De Vere's Studies in English. 

91. Key's (T. H.) Language: Its Origin and Develop- 

ment, 

92. A Dutchman's Difficulties with the English Lan- 

guage. 
Of course, every teacher owns 

93. Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, or 

94. Worcester's Dictionary, and never suflers himself 

to pass a word who.se meaning is not understood. 
If possible, have a dictionary in the school-room, 
and send pupils to it as often as necessary. Be 
sure, too, that they know how to use it. 
If, then, teacher and pupil have access to 

95. The American Cyclopedia, 

96. Chambers's Cyclopedia, or 

97. Zell's Encyclopedia, they are fortunate, indeed. 

The references to these will be general,— the 
same as to the dictionaries, 



TO THE STUDENT. 

This book ivS to help you get and recite your Gram- 
mar Lessons. 
It supposes — 

1. That you are familiar with the terms, deflnitious, 

and rules of some text-book on the subject ; 

2. That you can parse words in their ordinary con- 

structions; 

3. That you are acquainted with some good system of 

outlining; 

4. That you have access to a large number of the 

works that have been enumerated ; and 
5* That 3'ou have, at least, two hours to devote to 
every lesson. 
It aims — 

1. To make your work easy, not by diminishing the 

small amount of original thought and investiga- 
tion which text-books ordinarily require, but by 
demanding more of both ; and 

2. To make your work interesting, by making it sys- 

tematic and thorough. 
It expects— 

1. Fair treatment at your hands; 

2. That you will work faithfully— preparing every 

lesson with care and remembering that it is not 

only "hard work," but that long continued, 

which is fruitful of lasting results. 

Your teacher will explain to you the w&y in which 

the book is to be rsed. Let me urge that you enter 

into full sympathy with the plan here proposed. 

Doubtless the task of "looking up" all the references 

given will, at first, prove irksome, but J do pot hesi- 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 19 

tate to assure you that in a short time it will become 
very fascinating. Be sure you thoroughly compre- 
hend every author consulted, and resolve at the outset 
that you will accept nothing that does not appear 
reasonable. Be careful, however, not to let your desire 
to arrive at the truth degenerate into a mere love of 
controversy, which, in its turn, is as contemptible as 
the other extreme of unquestioning acquiescence. 
The best rule in this, as in all similar cases, is "Read 
not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take 
for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to 
lueigh and consider.^^ 

In preparing your outlines, take pride in being able 
to present work that is neat. Let the matter be tastily 
arranged, and properly punctuated. Be careful in the 
use of capitals. Above all, do not let your fair page 
be disfigured by misspelled words. 



Preliminary Classifications and Definitions. 



Language and Grammar. 



LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 

By language we mny mean (1) either the power which man 
possesses of associating liis tliouglits with signs, (2) or the par- 
ticular system of signs witli whicli different portions of man- 
kind liave actually so associated their thoughts.— ,S'ir William 
Hamilton. 

Since this word has two meanings, in using it we 
must be careful to avoid ambiguity, — remembering 
that "The meaning of a word is the tling we think of 
when we use that word ;' and, therefore, that "A 
word having two, distinct meanings is really two 
words." 

Evidently, it is not in the first sense that gramma- 
rians use the term, or that we shall have occasion to 
use it in the study of grammar. But, shall we take 
the word in the second sense as signifying precisely 
what grammarians mean when they employ it? 

We shall find them differing widel3' among them- 
selves as to the precise meaning the word should have. 

1 (6) tells us that it should mean, ^^Any method of 
communicating thought and feeling. ^^ If the author 
is correct, the second sense in which Hamilton uses 
the word is far too narrow, since this definition (and 
the subdivisions and explanations which follow,) af- 
firms that brute animals have language, and that lan- 
guage is for the expression of feeling as well as thought. 
This definition has been ad-pted by a few other au- 
thors, and by a great many teachers. 

On the other hard, 67 (145-146) defines language as 
signifying ^^Any series of sounds or letters formed into 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 21 

words and etnployed for the exjjression of thought ;^^ 
and *'For the propriety of this limitation, and against 
those authors who describe the thing otherwise," he 
appeals "to the common sense of mankind/' Evi- 
dently, if this author is right, Hamilton's use of the 
word is wrong, for he plainly, if not intentionally, 
warrants its application to such instinctive methods 
of communication as ci'ies, tones, gestures, etc. 

Between these two extremes, 1 (6) and 67 (145-146), 
we find almost every possible shade of difference. 
We can h^dly evade the conviction that the authors 
"agreed to disagree." 

Let us see if the origin of the word will help us. 
Referring to the dictionary, we see that it is derived, 
through the French, from the Latin lingua, which 
means tongue. But as the tongue is one of the most 
important of the organs of speech, it is likely that, 
primarily, language was but another name for speech. 
From this use of the word to that in which it would 
signify the method of communicating by means of 
spoken words was but a step. 

By way of metaphor, it would soon come to be ap- 
plied to all forms of writing; and, in time, its appli- 
cation would be so broadened as to include all modes 
by which intelligence can be manifested. Nor do we 
stop here. In the words of Prof. Marsh, "We apply 
the same designation to the promptings of the silent 
inspiration, and the lessons of the intelligible provi- 
dence, of the Deity, as well as to the voice of the 
many-tongued operations of inanimate nature. Lan- 
guage, therefore, in its broadest sense, addresses itself 
to the human soul both by direct intuition, and 
through all the material entrances of knowledge. 
Every organ may be its vehicle, every sense its re- 
cipient, and every form of existence a speaker." 
89 (31). 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Agaiu, a great logician tells us that '-Language, in 
its most general acceptance, [67 (146, Obs. 2.) to the 
contrary, notwithstanding,] might be described as a 
mode of expressing our thoughts by means of motions 
of the organs of the body; it would thus includespoken 
words, cries, and involuntary gestures that indicate 
the feelings, even painting and sculpture, together 
with those contrivances which replace speech in situ- 
ations where it cannot be employed, — the telegraph, 
the trumpet-call, the emblem, the hieroglyphic." 8ee 
Thompson's Outlines of the Laws of Thought, 'i 18. 

But, certainly, it should not be used in this broad 
sense by grammarians; and any attempt by them so 
to employ the word leads to an absurdity. An in- 
stance of this is afforded in 1 (6, 7, and 20). Neither 
does it appear that the restriction of language as to 
use to the mere communication of thought is proper. 
Though men may speak and write their language, 
they oftener do neither. "We may use words even if 
we do not utter them ;'' our thoughts (Who can teU 
their number for a single day!) commonly employ 
language. It is not only a means whereby we may 
communicate thought, — it is one of the means where- 
by we may think. Both definitions seem to be faulty, 
for both make the restriction referred to. 

What, then, do grammarians refer to when thej^ 
employ the term ? 

It is probable that we can find no better definition 
of language than the following : 

A system of signs called words, employed as an in- 
strument of thought. 

i8Sg"A word is such a sign of an idea as is capable of being 
represented by spoken sounds. It is not only hypercritical but 
erroneous to designate as words spol-en rcordx only; and to say 
that a written word is but a sign of a spoken word— "a sign of 
a sign." We have only to reflect that deaf mutes, who can 
have no proper conception of spoken words, employ written 
words, to understand that the latter are as truly "signs of 
ideas" as are the former. A letter is as much (but no more) the 
sign of a sound, as the sound is a sign of the letter. 



CLASS-UOOK OF METHODS. 23 

Compare this definition of language with the follow- 
ing: 

A system of articulate words adopted by convention 
to represent outwardly the internal proof of thinking. 
—Abp. Thompson. 

The relation of language to thought is one of the 
closest and most important that is possible to exist 
between agent and principal. According to President 
Schuyler, "Language is (1) the product, (2) the instru- 
ment, (3) and the embodiment of thought." But the 
two should never be confounded. This is frequently 
done both by ^writers on logic and grammar, to the 
great detriment of both subjects. 

"It has been held that the laws of sj^eech — the prin- 
ciples which govern the production and development 
of languages — are the same as the laws of thought — 
logic. Hence have arisen many false conceptions ot* 
grammar. Grammarians have begun by laying down 
the modes in which men must think, and then pro- 
ceeded to find in speech the necessary exponents of 

these modes This is a great 

error."— PeiVe. "Speech [language] has to a great de- 
gree superseded all other methods by reason of its 
greater convenience. But all alike are but instru- 
ments of man for the expression of his thought." — Id. 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN PARTICULAR. 

The English language is the language which is used 
by the English people of to-day. It is also used by 
the people of the United States, British America, 
Scotland, Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia. It 
belongs to the great family of languages which is 
called the Indo-European or Aryan family. This 
family is divided into seven distinct groups, viz : 

1. The Indie, embracing the languages of India ; 

2. The Iranic, embracing the Persian and Armenian 

languages ; 



24 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. The Italic, embracing the ancient Latin, and the 

Romance languages. These are the (1) Italian, 
(2) Spanish, (3) French, (4) Portuguese, (5) Ro- 
manese, (6) Wallachian. 

4. The Celtic, which embraces the Armotican, Welch, 

Erse, Gaelic, and Manx. 

5. The Hellenic, represented chiefly by the Greek and 

the Romanic. 

6. The Germanic, from which has sprung, among 

many others, the Anglo-Saxon, which we may 
regard as the grand-parent of the English. 

7. The Slavonic, the last group. Its languages are 

very numerous, of which we mention the Polish, 
Russian, Bohemian, and Lithuanian. 
The relation of the English language to the other 

Teutonic languages can be seen from the following 

conspectus : 



(1) Dead 



I. Low-German 






II. Scandinavian 



III. High-German 



1. Gothic (formeriy spoken 
in the province of Dacia). 

2. Old Saxon (formerly spo- 
ken between the Rhine 
and the Elba in Munster, 
Essen, and Cleaves). 



f 1. English (spoken by Eng- 
I lish people of to-dav). 

2. Frisian (spoken between 

1 the Scheldt and Jutland 

io\ T j,r<v.,, and on the adjacent is- 

(2) Living ^ lands). 

3. Dutch (spoken in Hol- 
land). 

4. Flemish (the court-lan- 
guage of Brabant). 

(I. Icelandic. 
I 2. Danish. 
] 3. Swedish. 
[4. Norwegian. 

rOld High -German. 
- Middle High-German. 
(Modern High-German. 



See 70 (6-9), 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 95, 96. 

The science of language is in its infancy. It has 
not even advanced far enough to define its families, 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 25 

groups, and subordinate classes. For instance, no 
logical definition of the English language has yet been 
given. 
Read 8 (1-15), 70 (Chap. II). 

GRAMMAR. 

Grammar is the science which investigates the 
usages of languages for the purpose of determining the 
principles on which those usages are based. 

These principles, when formally stated, are called 
rules. Many of them are universal and unchanging; 
but each language has special rules developed from, 
or superadcfed to, these fundamental principles. Of 
these special rules, some are as permanent as the lan- 
guage itself, while some are quite changable, serving 
but to set forth the practices observed in speaking by 
men of a certain day. 

English grammar is that department of the science 
which investigates the English language. 

Read 3 (10-15), G7 (145). 



HOW TO GET THE FIRST LESSOR. 

We are in the Library, seated at a table, and having 
our text-booli ("Holbroolv's Complete," probably) 
blank-book and pencil conveniently at hand. Ou] 
teacher has assigned the following lesson, "All abou' 
the Noun, except its Modifications.' 

We wish to preserve for use in the recitation 9 neai 
outline of the results of our investigations, so W( 
first write at the top of the page the word 
xouxs. 

The firrft question, naturally, is what? What is i 
noun ? 

We remember having seen the answer ''A noun U 
a name," in at least a half dozen different books, I 
isn't necessary to consult the Reference Library at this 
stage of the work. We will just put down the defi 
nition— 

1^ Definition — A noun is , 

But to make sure let us consult Holbrook. 

Yes, on page 31, Art. 123, he says "A 7ioun is i 
name.^^ But read on. Art. 124: "When used as £ 
name any sign^ letter^ ivord, phrase^ or sentence, ma^ 
become a noun." 

Then if we say — 

1. -\- is the sign of Division ; 

2. What does Ih mean ? 

3. Add the 9's and 13's,- 

4. Isn't it hard to make d-c? 

5. A is an article ; 

G. Dog is either a noun or a verb ; 

7. IV s is not the possessive of it ; 

8. X, Jg^"", *, ^ -, •[, t, ^, II, 0, are very useful in print 

ing, are all these symbols nouns? As ordinari 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. ' 27 

ly used, are they nouns? The word horse is a 
noun, in the sentence — 

The horse runs ; 

But is a horse a noun ? 

Let us look through the Reference Library, and see 
if we can find other books teaching the same thing. 

Yes, quite a large number— 4 (176), 5 (27), 6 (25), 
8 (12), 9 (50), 14 (35), 17 (108), 67 (238, Obs. 1.), &c. 

Well, since reading all these references, do we still 
believe that "A noun is a name?" Certainly; for in 
all the examples given the signs^ letters, etc., have 
been used technicaUy ; and in every case it is the name 
which the sign suggests^ and not the sign itself, 
that is regarded as the noun. 

8ee 89 (301), 69 (20, 21, 22). 

Again, take such expressions as — 

1. Ihoroughness and dispatch is our motto ; 

2. " We celebrate this day^^ was written on the banner ; 

3. A prompt, decisive man, no breath 
Our father wasted : ^Boys, a path V 

We can easily see that the italicised portions are 
used technically. Somewhat diflerently the follow- 
ing: 

1. Goetz of the Iron Hand; 

2. The Good Knight, luithout Fear and without JRe- 

proach ; 

3. Ihe Dark and Bloody Ground; 

4. Mason and Dixon'' s Line ; 

5. Mutual Admiration Society ; 

We have no difficulty, however, in seeing that 1 and 
2 are applied to persons; 3, to a place; 4, to a bound- 
ary ; and 5, to an organization. We can easily vary 
the mode of expression, however, so as to cover the 
whole ground and not mislead. In finishing our defi- 
nition, we will say — 
— anything which is used as a name, 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2^ Classes of Nouns — Two, 
Of course, we refer to the two classes, Proper and Com- 
mon. Onewould think, perhaps, that all grammarians, 
however much they might differ upon other points, 
would agree as to the propriety of this classification ; 
but read 7 (67, Obs. 1.), where such classification is 
pronounced "one rather of curiosity than of practical 
utiiity in the Science of Language." Without paus- 
ing to discov^er classifications which our rather eccen- 
tric author would regard as of "practical utility," we 
will try to discover good reasons for making this one. 

To ascertain the distinction upon which the classi- 
fication is based, we will suppose there are several 
boys in the room here. The word hoy applies indifTer- 
ently to every one of them. If we wish to particular- 
ize, we must use a defining word ; thus, the boy, <Ais 
boy, that boy. Now, there is another way in which 
I may designate a particular boy. The word hoy is 
his name, but not his onl.y. Others have \\,in common 
with him. But, by giving him a name of his oivn, we 
can know tliat he is meant whenever that name is 
spoken. Accordingly, we call him Johti, Charles, or 
Henry. 

Now, when we call a boy John, the word Joh7i has 
no meaning beyond the individual to whom it is ap-* 
plied. It is a mere mark or sign to designate a certain 
object. Of itself, it tells us nothing about that object. 
It simply expresses jicirtieularify. 

On the other hand the word boy has a meaning far 
beyond the individual to whom it is applied, and it 
tells us what kind of object is meant. 

We sum up then — 

1. Home nouns are ^^^rt/y/c^^/crr and meaningless; but 

2. Others are general and have meaning. 

By consulting the dictionaries we shall find that 
the words jjrcyper and common are nicely adapted to 
these distinctions, for 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 29 

1. Proper means '^one^s oum,^^ "belonging to something 

in particular ;^' and 

2. Common means "belonging to many." 
Therefore, resuming our outline, we write — 

1^ Proper Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A proper noun is a name, par- 
ticular and meaningless, and applied to an 
object to distinguish it from the rest of its 
class. 

"Particular!" Then will the word John, which in 
the case given above is a ])ioper noun, become com- 
mo7i, if a half dozen other "Johns" enter the room? 
The name would certainly "belong to many," and we 
would have to use the defining words, the, this, that, 
etc., if we would de&iignate a particular boy. Such 
puzzling questions are frequently asked. Keeping in 
view the ends which proper nouns are intended to sub- 
serve, we may avoid the fallacy into which many 
grammarians have fallen. The name John was given 
to each of these boj^s individually; and, even though 
others are present who have been designated in the 
same manner, yet each one can say that John is his 
"own" name. Our "mark" or "sign' may not be 
quite adequate on all occasions to distinguish its ob- 
ject, but its nature and intent are not changed in con- 
sequence. 

But the case is quite different when the names of 
objects are made the basis of classification ; as, for in* 
stance, if we were to class together all the persons 
named John, all named Charles, etc. Here, though 
the names were originally given to denote ^jar^ici^/ar- 
ity, they are now used for exactly the opposite pur- 
pose, and are properly classed with common nouns. 
Consult 2 (39, (a) ), 9 (55), 12 (29, Remarks 2, 3, 4), 14 
(36), 16 (17, 18), 17 (105), 23 (303, 304), 67 (271, Obs. 2, 3). 

"Meaningless !" Then will some one please explain 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the chapter on "Christian Names, with Their Deriva- 
tions, Significations,'' etc., found in Webster's Un- 
abridged ? Why, the lexicographer gives the mean- 
ing of the word John itself— 

"John. [Heb.] The gracious gift of God." 

We will find information on this point in 9 (52), 16 (16), 
87(105). 

2^ Kinds of Proper Nouns with Eespectto Form — 
Three. 
1* Simple Proper Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A simple proper noun is one 

which consists of one word. 
2^ Examples — Kentucky, Oicensboro. 
2* Complex Proper Nouns. 

P Dcfiniiion — A complex proper noun is one 
which consists of two or more words not 
united. 
2^ Examples — South Carrollton, Gsnl Wash- 
ington, Duke of Wellington. 
3* Compound Proper Nouns. 

P Definition — A compound proper noun is 
one which consists of two or more words 
connected. 
2^ Examples — Courier -Journal, Abraham- Cu- 
pid, Jack-with the- Lantern. 
3' Kinds of Proper Nouns with Respect to Ob- 
jects Designated — Six. 
1* Proper Names which designate persons : 
John^ Mary^ Napoleon Bonaparte. 



CLASS-BOOKS OF METHODS. 31 

2* Proper names which designate places : Ken- 
tucky^ South Carrollton. 
3* Proper nouns which designate things : The 

points, A^ B, C, etc.; The line AB. 
4* Proper nouns which designate buildings, 
works of nature, etc.: St. Peter's, Mam- 
moth Cave, Niagara Falls. 
5* Proper names which designate firms, corpor- 
ations, etc.; John Smith & Co., Harvard 
College. 
6* Proper nouns which designate days, months, 
festivals, etc.: Sunday, January, Christ- 
mas. 
Here is another fact about proper nouns: "They 
should always begin with capital letters. This is a 
good fact to remember when you are writing letters 
2^ Common Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A common noun is one which is 
general and significant. 
Read 9 (54), 16 (15, 5), and consult the dictionary for 
the meaning of general. 

We now proceed to classify common nouns< Our 
task, though apparently easy, soon proves difficult 
enough. It is amusing to note how widely gramma- 
rians differ in regard to the number of classes they 
make and the definitions they give of those classes. 
Let us consult a few authors, endeavoring net to be- 
come confused. 
Holbrook, 1 (130), tells us that common nouns 

*'have three special sub-classes: Abstract, Collective^ 
Verbal:' 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5 (29), 7 (55, 66, 67), 8 (18), 10 (168, 169, 170), say about 
the same thing. Read. 

2 (41) questions the soundness of this classification, 
and would malse no mention of the sub-classes. Read. 

4 attempts no classifications of nouns, but is kind 
enough to define collective nouns. So 22 (15). Read. 

6 (26) gives Holbrook's three sub-classes, and adds 
"Diminutives:" Definition — "One derived from an- 
other noun, and expressing some object of the same 
kind but smaller." Read. 

Notwithstanding the classification taught in 10 (168, 
169, 170), the same author, in 9 (56, 57, 59, 60), gives 
the following "Collective, Abstract, Material"— one 
that "denotes some kind of matter or substance." 
But, as if this variation were not perplexing enough, 
he proceeds to give, 9 (pp. 125, 126), a "more philosoph- 
ical" (?) one. Accordingly we have "1. Nouns are 
either concrete or abstract. 2. Nouns may be divided 
into the following classes : proper, abstract, material, 
verbal, all of which imply unity or oneness, and com- 
mon including collective, both of which imply plural- 
ity." Of these, the first four readily pass into the fifth 
on being modified. Read. 

11 (22) divides all common nouns into class nouns, 
abstract nouns, collective nouns, and verbal nouns, 
Read. 

12 (30) defines collective nouns, abstract nouns, and 
quantitive nouns — "Names of things that increase or 
decrease in quantitj^ and not in number, generally 
denoting substance or material." Read. 

14 (36) adopts the same classification that Holbrook 
gives, but adds "Nouns which denote substance of 
kind." Read. 

15 (132) considers it "useful to note" "two classes of 
common nouns, collective and abstract,^ ^ 

17 (107) informs us that "Under common nouns are 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 33 

usually ranked class names^ collective nouns, names of 
materials, names of measures, etc., and abstract 
nounsy After defining abstract nouns, he kindly (?) 
mentions two other clashes, verbal and diminutive. 

Passing over the intervening authors, none of whom 
add anything to the chaotic mass already collected, 
we consult 67(289). According to this eminent au- 
thority, "The particular classes, collective, abstract, 
and verbal, or participial, are usually included among 
common nouns.''^ He mentions another class of com- 
mon nouns, "The name of a thing sui generis.^^ 

Three of our most able references remain to be con- 
sulted. We will now read carefully 3 (114-119), 16 
(15-28), 69 (31, 32). 

The result of our reading will probably be to con- 
vince us that most of the grammarians have made the 
mistake which in logic is called "the fallacy of CROSS 
DIVISIONS." That is they have used more than one 
principle of division, and. hence, their classes cross, or 
overlap one another. If I were to try to divide all the 
books in my library into five classes, 8 vos, 12-mos, 
histories, grammars, and works by American writer'^, 
you would doubtless pronounce the attempt absurd. 
Why? 8imply, because I try to make one classifica- 
tion, and use no less than three principles, or bases, of 
classification. The resulting classes would not exclude 
one another. Holbrook's Grammar, for instance, 
would be found in three of them. It would be a 
12-mo, a grammar, and a work by an Am,erican wi'iter. 
Again, the sum of the five classes proposed would 
probably not comprise all the books in my library. 
It is evident that I may have books that are not S-vos, 
12-mos, histories, grammars, or works by Am,erican 
writers ; as Jevons's Elementary Lessons in Logic, a 
16-mo, by an Englishman. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Bearing in mind, then, these three laws — 

1. That there must be but one principle of division, 

2. That the classes must exclude one another, and 

3. That their sum must equal the genus, 

we readily arrive at tlie following conclusions: 

1. That the classification adopted in 1 (130), 5 (29), 
7 (65, 66, 67), &c., is not sound, since it violates all 
three laws. 

2. That the several classifications of 6 (26), 9 (56, 57, 
59, 60), 12 (30), 14 (36), 15 (132), are open to the same 
objections. 

3. That 11 (22) and 17 (24, 107) violate the first and 
second laws. 

That, taking the author's own definitions of his 
classes 9 (pp. 125, 126) gives a classification logically 
correct; but, since the definitions themselves are 
faulty, we must reject, the cIassifi(^t«)i^..Tj ^,31 

That, for ordinary purposes, the classification given 
in 3 (114-119) is too complex. 

We therefore adopt the following: 
1^ Kinds of Common Nouns with Eespect to 
Form — Three. 
1^ Simple Common Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A simple common noun is one 

which consists of one word. 
2^ Examples — Boy^ girl, book, slate. 
2* Complex Common Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A complex common noun is 
one which consists ot a phrase or a sen- 
tence used as a name. 
2^ Example —" Tfe celebrate this day'' was 
written on the banner. 
3* Compound Common Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A compound common noun is 



cIjASS-book of methods. 35 

one which consistB of two or more words 
counected. 

2" Examples — Ink-stand, brother-in-law. 
3' Kinds of Common Nouns with Eespect to Ex- 
tent of Application — Two. 
1* Class Nouns. 

P Definition — A class noun is one which ap- 
plies to each individual of a class. 

2^ Examples — Boy, girl, slate. 
2* Sui Generis Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A sui generis noun is (the ab- 
breviated expression for) one which is 
the name of something distinguished as 
a sort by itself, without plurality. 

2^ Examples — I. on., diphtheria, geometry. 

It is not necessary to carry the process of division 
farther. However this can easily be done and we 
would thus, logically, arrive at all the classes usually 
given. 

In regard to collective nouns and abstract nouns, we 
agree with 2 (41) that the proper place to treat the first 
is under the modification niimber, and that the second 
no more require to be specially distinguished than do 
concrete nouns. 

We prefer to treat Whitney's "GENDER-nouns," 
3 (115), under the head of "modifications." 

The division of ''derivatives'' into diminutives, etc., 
3 (118), is interesting, but need not occur in our gener- 
al outline. 

In the preparation of this lesson we have gleaned a 
great deal of information which will not properly 
€ome under the head of 



36 ENGLISH GRA3IMAK. 

Classification, 
but which is well worthy of place in our outline. We 
will gather these facts and place them in proper order 
under 
3^ Miscellaneous Facts about Nouns. 

The outline (which we will carefully preserve for 
use at the recitation) will then appear as follows: 

1^ Definition — A noun is anything w^hich is used 

as a name. 
2} Classification. 
1^ Proper Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A proper noun is a name, par- 
ticular and meaningless, and applied to 
an object to distingiish it from the rest 
of its class. 
2^ Kinds of Proper Nouns with Respect to 
Form — Three 
1* Simple Proper Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A simple proper noun is 

one which consists of one word. 
2^ Examples — Kentucky, Owensboro. 
2* Complex Proper Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A complex proper noun is 

one which consists of two or more 

words not united. 

2' Examples— >S'owf A Carrollton, Genl 

George Washington^ Duke of Wellington, 

3* Compound Proper Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A compound proper noun 
is one which consists of two or more 
words connected. 



CLASS-BOOK OP METHODS. 37 

2^ Examples — Courier - Journal, Abraham- 
Cupid, Jack-with-the- Lantern. 
\-\^ Kinds of Proper Nouns with Eespect to 
Objects Designated — Six. 
V Proper nouns which designate persons: 

John, Mary, Nafoleon (Bona'parte. 
2^ Proper nouns which designate places: 

Kentucky^ South Carrollton. 
3* Proper nouns which designate things : 
The points, A, (B, C, etc.; The line A^B. 
4^ Proper nouns which designate build- 
ings, works of nature, etc.: St. Jeter's, 
Mammoth Cave, Niagara Falls. 
5^ Proper nouns which designate firms, cor- 
porations, etc.: John Smith cS- Co., 
Harvard College. 
6* Proper nouns which designate days, 
months, festivals, etc.: Sunday, Janu- 
ary, ChristrAas. 
2'^ Common Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A common noun is one which 

is general and significant. 
2'^ Kinds of Common Nouns with Respect to 
Form — Three. 
1^ Simple Common Nouns. 

1' Definition — A simple common noun is 

one which consists of one word. 
2^ Examples — (Boy, girl, book, slate. 
2' Complex Common Nouns. 

1' Definition — A complex common noun 
is one which consists of a phrase or 
- a sentence used as a name. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

2^ Examples — "We celebrate this day" 
was written on the banner. 
3* Compound Common Nouns. 

1* Definition— A compound common noun 
is one which consists of two or more 
words connected. 
2^ Examples — Ink-stand^ brother-in-law. 
3' Kinds of Common Nouns with Kespect to 
Extent of Application — Two. 
1* Class Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A class noun is one which 
applies to each individual of a class. 
2^ Examples — (Boy, girl, slate. 
2^ Sui Generis Nouns. 

1^ Definition — A sui generis noun is (the 
abbreviated expression for) one 
which is distinguished as a sort by 
itselt without plurality. 
2^ Examples — Iron, diphtheria, geometry. 
3* Miscellaneous Facts about Nouns, 
r^ General. 

V The word noun comes from the Latin 

NOMEN which means name.. 
2* A noun is sometimes called a substantive- 
3^ In such expressions as ^I'o see the sun is 
pleasant, That you have wronged me doth 
appear in this, 

The infinitive phrases and the nubordinate sentences, 
are not nauns, for they are not used teclinicaUy. 

^ There are about 100,000 nouns in the Eng- 
lish language. 



CLASS-BOOK OF MJJTHODS. 39 

5^ (Anything else you deem worthy of mention). 
2^ In Eegard to Proper Nouns. 

1"^ Proper nouns are not defined in our diction- 
aries. (Why not ?) 

2=^ There are about 70,000 proper nouns in the 
English Language. 

3'* Proper nouns should always begin with 
capital letters, 

4^ Titles, though usually adjectives^ are consid- 
ered part of the name. 

5-' (Any additional matter of interest.) 
3"^ In Eegard to Common Nouns. 

1'^ All the Douns which are defined in dic- 
tionaries are common nouns. 

2'' There are about 30,000 common nouns in the 
English language. This number does not 
include the common nouns derived from 
the technical use of letters, words, signs, 
etc., for it must be evident that, were they 
included, the whole number would be in- 
finite. 

3'^ Words, usually belonging to other parts of 
speech, frequently become common nouns, 
though no I used technically. 

4' Common nouns should begin with small let- 
ters. The exceptions to this rule are as 
follows : 1. If the noun is the first word of 

A SENTENCE, AN EXAMPLE, A DIRECT QUES- 
TION, or A LINE OF POETRY, it should begin 
with a capital letter. 2. A common noun 
beginning any one of a series of numbered 
CLAUSES, should begin with a capital let- 
ter 3 Every noun in the quoted title of 
a book should begin with a capital letter. 
5-' (Any additional matter). 



LESSON II. 
Modifications of Nouns— Person.- 

11 Modifications in General. 
]^ RefereDcest :— Dictionary, Encyclopedia, 69 (50. 
53), 67 (220), 15 (165), 26 (54), 17 
(111). 
2^ Remarkg :— Only three of the parts of speech have 
no modifications, vizr: propositions, 
conjunctions, and interjections. 
21 Modifications of Nouns in particular: 
1^ References :— 67 (240), 26 (61), 1 (137). 
2- The Person of nouns : 

F References :— 67 (240— 242), 17 (112— 120), 12 (58), 
9 (115—120), 8 (20—24), 4 (208, 
note), 1 (138—149). 
Having consulted the references given, we will now 
prepare our outline for the recitation. Our outline 
must be contiuous with the one prepared for the first 
lesson (See page — ), so we write — 
1^ Modifications of Nouns— Four {Three.) 

V Definition — The modifications of nouns are 
changes In their forms to show 
diflferences in their significa 
tions or relations. 

*Nouns do not have {/j-amatical person (nor did tliey ever), 
and hence our plan (which is the one commonly followed bj' 
grammarians) of discussing the person of nouns under the 
head of "modifications" is convenient rather than logical. If 
dvie care is given to the definitions of mi)dtficatiotiK and prrson 
here adoptod, no confusion need result from this concession 
to custom. It will be observed that we use prrson to mean 
signification, and "jxrwn" to mean form. 

The importance of discussing /^rr«o« of nouns will be appar- 
ent when we reflect that the person of the nonii fretjut'nt !>• 
affects the "person" of a verb. 

tThe student will consult the references in the order in 
which they are given. 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 41 

1- Enumeration and discussion, 
r^ Person. 

1* Definition — The person of a noun is 
the signification which the 
noun has, according as it 
denotes the speaker^ the per- 
son spoken to, or the person 
or thing spoken of. 
2* Number of persons — Three. 
1^ Th& first person. 

P Specification — When a noun denotes 
the speaker, it is in 
the first person. 
2^ Remarks: 

It a noun may be ^/ic^iawe of the speak- 
er and yet not be in- the first person. 
2^ Some grammarians teach that a noun 
in the first person is found in no oth- 
er cons' ruction than that of absolute 
by subscription. Others teach that it 
may be either of two : 

1. Absohite by subscription, and 

2. Apposition with a pronoun of 
the first person. 

Admitting that a noun in the firi^f 
person may have the second con- 
struction, after a careful considera- 
tion of such a sentence as "We, Mary, 
Anna, and Jane, were there," we 
shall doubtless be somewhat loath to 
admit that a noun having this con- 
struction "must" be in the first per- 
son. 
2^ The second person. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1^ When a noun denotes the persoi 
(or thing personified) spoken to, it i 
in the second person. 
2^ Remarks : 

1^ A noun may be the n?me of the per 
son (or thing personified) spoken tc 
and yet not be in the second persoc 
In this ease it will be in the thin 
(never the first) person. 
2' A noun in the second person mm 
have one or other of the two follow 
ing constructions, viz : 

1. Absolute by address, and 

2. Apposition with a pronoun c 
the second person ; 

but a noun having the second cou 
struction is not necessarily in th 
second person. 

3^ The third person. 

1*^ Specification — When a noun denote 
the person or thin 
spoken of, it is in th 
third person. 
2^ Remarks: 

r A noun in the third person mayh&x 
any construction except — 

1, Absolute by subscription, and 

2. Absolute by direct address; 
but It is not usual for a noun in tL 
third person to be in apposition wit 
a pronoun of either the first or tli 
second person 

2- Frequently the third person is use 
for the first or the second. 



LESSON III. 
Modlllcatioiis of BTouns Continued— Number. 

11 References: 
12 "Number'^ in general :— 93, 70 (90, 182), 67 (242), 1 

(329, 330), 26 (67), 51 (14). 
22 '^Number" of nouns :— 70 (90), 15 (165, 166), 11 (26) 

7 (p. 78; remarks, obs. 1), 4 (212), 3 (120), 2(91 

and dictionary for the meaning of "inflec 

tion"),69(p. 52; g 35, [1], [2], [3]). 
32 Number of ''numbers" in English .—67 (242 

obs. 1), 16(123; 1), 1 (151), 
42 Singular numbers defined :— 51 (14; 3), 16 (123 

1), 17 (32, ; 136), 7 (75), 
52 Plura' number of nouns formed regularly: — 51 

(15; Rule I.), 26 (68), 4 (213), 2 (122), 67 (242; 

obs. 2, obs. 4), 1 (157), 
72 Plurals formed irregularly:— 51 (15 [except Rule 

I.]), 4 (214, 215, 216;, 16 (123-125), 17 (32; 138- 

143), 2 (123, 124), 1 (158, 159, 160), 67 ^242-254). 
8^ Remains of older plurals. 
P Plural formed by vowel change:— 70 (91), 1 

(161), 3(125; a), 2(97). 
2^ Plurals ending in en :— 70 (92), 3 (125; b), 67 
(246; obs, 19), 16 (126, 127). 
92 Foreign Plurals :— 70 (99), 3 (126), 5 (34, 35), 2(98), 

1 (168), 51 (16; 1). 
102 Double plurals:— 2 (99), 70 (94), 26 (69; 10), 15 

(170). 
IP False plurals:— 70 (95), 93, 16 (130; 10), 
122 piui-als treated as singulars:— 70 (96), 2 (102; 1), 

16(129; 9), 3 (129). 
182 ]^^ouns used in plural only:— 16 (129; 8), 27 (24; 

IV., 2), 8 (46). 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMER, 

14- Plurals which seem to difler from their singu- 
lars in respect to the objects they designate : — 
16 (128; 7). 

152 Singulars treated as plurals:— 9 (56), 3 (127), 1 
(132), 

16- Nouns which have no plural forms: — 15(171), 

16 (127 ; 4), 3 (127, 128), 1 (167), 17 (37 ; 155, 157), 
14 (45). 

17- Plurals of proper names with titles: — 9 (154), 1 

(166), 17 (38; 161), 14 (44), 12 (46), 15 (169). 

18- Plurals of complex and compound nouns: — 70 

(100), 1 (162, 163, 165), 9 (149—1-51); 15 (168, 169), 
3 (130). 
We will now compare the outline we have made 
with the following, noting every point of difference 
but making no changes. The outline should be con- 
tinuous with the one of Lesson II. 
2'^ Number. 

V Definition — The number of a noun is the form 
which the noun has, according 
as it denotes imifi/ or j^luraliti/. 
2* Number of "numbers' — Two. 
P The singular number. 
1" Definition — The singular number of a 
noun is the form which the 
noun has when it denotes 
unity. 
26 Examples— i?o?/, leaf, lens, ox, mouse, 
house, goase, brother-in-law, 
sheep, auto-cla-fe, i^ per cent. 
2' The plund number. 

P Definition — The plural number of a noun 
is tlie form which the noun 
assumes when it denotes plu- 
raliiii. 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 45 

2® Examples — Boys^ leaves, lenses, oxen, 
mice, houses, geese, brothers- 
in-law, , autO'da-fes, 6 

per cents. 
3^ Different ways of forming : 
1' By inflections : 
F Regularly. 

P Rule T.— English nouns regularly 
form their plurals by add- 
ing s to the singular. 
2^" Irregularly. 

V* Rule II. — Common nouns ending 
in ch, soft, s, sh, x, z, 
or o preceded by a conso- 
nant, form their plurals 
by adding es to the sin~ 
gular. 
l^^Exceptions : — 

The following nouns ending in ©pre- 
ceded by '\ consonant form their plu- 
rals regularly, contrary to Rule II. 
"^ Albino, 

Armadillo, 
Bravo, 
Canto, 
Domino, 
Duodecimo, 
Fresco, 
Junto. 
2^ Rule III. — Common nouns ending 
in y preceded by a con- 
sonant form their plu- 
rals by changing y to i 
and adding es. 
3^ Rule IV.— Nouns of pure English 
origin, ending in /or fe 
preceded by any long 
vowel sound except oo, 
or by I, change / to v, 
and add es. 



Halo, 


Salvo, 


Lasso, 


Sirocco, 


Memento, 


Solo, 


Octavo, 


Stiletto, 


Piano, 


Two, 


Proviso, 


Tyro, 


Quarto, 


Zero, 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 



110 Exceptions:— Wharf has also the reg- 
ular form H-harfs, and 
staff (the only word end- 
ing in ff which has the 
ending ves) has staffs. 
210 Following is a list of words governed 
by Rule IV. 
Beef Knife Shelf Thief 

Calf Leaf Self Wharf 

Elf Life (Staff) Wife 

Half Loaf Sheaf Wolf 

4" Rule V. — A few nouns form their 
plurals by adding en, 
either with or without 
other changes. 

110 Remark. Of these, ox is the only noun 
in which the ending is the old Eng- 
lish plural. 

59 Rule VI. — Foreign nouns not fully 
anglicized retain their 
foreign plurals (but not 
duals). 

lio Latin : 

SINGULAR. PlitTRAL. 

Nebul-a, Nebul-ae. 

Foc-us, Foc-i. 

Dat-wm, Dat-a. 

Vort-ex, Vort-tces. 

Gen-M«, Gen-era. 

2io Greek : Cris-is, Cris-os. 

Plienomen-071, Phenom.en-a. 

310 Hebrew: Cherub, Cherub-im." 

410 Italian : Virtuos-o, Virtuos-i. 

510 French: Beau, Beau-x. 

6^ Rule VII. — Letters, figures, signs, 
and words used tech- 
nically as names, are 
made plural by adding 
an apostrophe and s. 



*Has acquired the regular English plural. 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 47 

110 Examples: 

SINGULAR. PLURAL,. 

=•= is called the asterisk. Four -'«. 

It is a pronoun. Parse the Ws. 

/and ,/are similar. Dot your i's. 

Is 9 an inverted 6 ? Add the 9's. 

2^ By radical variations : 
18 Modes in which the changes take 
place. 
F Rule VII, — A few English nouns 
form their plurals by 
means of voivel changes 
within the word, no 
change being made in 
their ending;^ ; 
lio Specification : 

SINGULAR, PLURAL, 

ffl is changed to e. 
oo is changed to ee. 



2io Examples : 

Man, 




Men, 




Woman, 




Women. 




Tooth, 




Teeth. 




Foot, 




Feet, 




Goose, 




Geese. 


29 Rule IX.- 


-But some 


change conso- 




nants also. 




110 Specification : 








SINGULAR, 


PLURAL. 


210 Example: 


0U8 is cnanged to 

: LoMse, Lice. 

Mo?t«e, Mice. 


^c. 


(But 


HoMse, has 


Housen, 

old form; 
Houses, 

modern form. 



4^ Obs. 1. Some nouns have two plural 
forms of different meanings. 
1^ Examples: 

SINGULAR. PLURAL, 

Brother, (1) Brothers (by blood); 

(2) Brethren (of a community). 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SINGULAR. PLUBAL. 

Cloth, (1) Cloths (kinds or pieces); 
(2) Clothes (garments). 

Die, ( 1) Dies (for coining); 

(2) Dice (for gaming). 

Index, (1) Indexes (to a book); 
(2) Indices (signs). 

Pea, (1) Peas (individuals); 

(2) Pease (collective). 

Penny, ( I) Pennies (separate coins); 
(2) Pence (collective). 

5'* Obs. 2. The plurals of some nouns seem 

to differ from their singulars in 

regard to the kind of objects 

designated : 

r Nouns that have two meanings in the 

singular io the least common of which 

the plural corresponds. 

1« Examples: 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Corn, Corns. 

Cum pass, Cum passes. 

Content, Contents. 

27 Nouns that have two meanings in the 
plural to only one of which the singu- 
lar corresponds. 
l8 Examples : 

SINGULAR. 

Number, Numbers : (1) in counting ; 
(2) in poetry. 
Custom, Customs : (1) habits ; 

(2) revenue duties. 
Pain, Pains : (1) sufferings ; 

(2) care. 
6« Obs. 3. Some are never used in the singu- 
lar form, 
1^ Class I.— Those which are treated as 
plurals. 
V The names of certain bodily ailments. 
P Examples : 

Mumps, Measles. 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 49 

:2" The names of certain articles of dress, 
V> Examples: 

Trowsers, Breeches, 

-i' The names of certain tools, instru- 
ments, &c, 
1» Examples: 

Pincers, Scissors, 

Tojigs, Shears. 

48 The names of things considered in 
mass or aggregate. 
P Examples: 

Ashes, Aborigiu-es, 

Billiards, Archives. 

2" Class II.— Those which though plural 
., in. form are treated as singu- 
lar. 
Is Proper plural forms, 
P Examples : 

Molasses, Shambl-es, 

News, Wages. 

2- False plural forms, 
P Examples: 

Alms, Riches, Eaves. 
7« Obs. 4. Some nouns have no plural form, 
1^ Class I.~Those which are always treat- 
ed as singular. 
1^ Such proper nouns as can have no 
plural, 
l9 Examples: 

Mammoth Cave, Owensboro, Kentucky. 
2** /Sui-generis nouns. 
I9 Examples: 

Oold, Elasticity. 

2^ Class II.— Those which though singu- 
lar in form are plural in 
thought. 
1*^ Nouns formerly neuter which had 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

lost their plural endings in the old- 
est English, 
P Examples: 

Sheep, Deer, Gross. 
8^ Obs. 5, Some nouns which have plural 
forms corresponding to their 
singulars, are also frequently 
treated in the singular as plural 
in idea. 
1^ Class I. — Those which change their sig- 
nifications as regards the ob- 
jects designated. 
1® These are commonly called collective 
nouns. 
1» Examples: 

1. The flock were scattered. 

2. The multitude were alarmed. 

2^ Class II. — Those which do not thus 
change their signification. 
1^ Some are preceded by a numeral sign 
of the plural ; 
1^ Examples: 

1. A pole ten /oof long. 

2. Two brace of birds. 

3. Three dozen buttons. 

4. A hundred horse. 

2^ But there are other cases where the 
ending is idiomatically dropped. 
1^ Examples : 

1. He has no objection(»). 

2. 1 was in his favori». 

9« Obs. 6. In forming the plurals of com- 
plex or compound nouns the 
practice is to make plural the 
part only which is regarded as 
the basis, according to the rules 
applicable to the particular 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 51 

classes to which the words be- 
long. 
V When the noun is foreign, and the de- 
scriptive part is not very obvious, the 
last word is inflected to forna the 
plural. 
P Examples : 

Auto-da-fes, Scire-faciases, 
Tete-a-tetes, Ipse-dixits. 
2^ A few compound nouns consisting of 
two parts have both parts made plural. 
r Examples : 

Men-servants, Ignes-fatui. 
87 When a proper name is preceded by a 
title, either (but not both) name or 
title is pluralized. 
F Examples: 

The Miss Clarks, The Misses Clark. 
Remark. The weight of authority 
is unquestionably against the sec- 
ond form. 
2*^ Exceptions: 

P Mrs. is never pluralized. 
2^ The title is never pluralized when 
the noun is modified by a numer- 
al. 
3** The title is always pluralized when 
it refers to two names denoting 
difl^erent persons. 



LESSON IV. 
Modifications of Nouns Continued— Oender, 

1^ References: 

1- Definition of gender:— 70 (79, 80, 81), 16 (116; 2), 

2 (113), 3 (115), 15 (174), 4 (208), 26 (62), 22 (20), 
23 (312), 25 (p. 72), 11(24), 9(95), 7(68), 51 '(13; 1), 
12 (50; remark), 69 (512, 513). 

2- Number of genders : 

1' Grammars which teach that there are but two 
genders:— 27 (27; remark 1), 25 (p. 78), 16 
(115; 1). 

2' Grammar.-? which teacii that there are three 
genders:— 6 (27), 7 (69, 70, 71), 8 (48), 14 (47), 
15 (174), 17 (28; 122), 22 (20), 67 (Definition, 
obs. 2), 69 (39). 

3' 'Grammars which teach that there are four 
genders:— I (172), 9 (p. 133), 5 (37), 11 (24; 2j, 
12(50), 23(313), 26(62), 51 (13; 2). 

4'^ Grammars which teach that there are Gender 

nouns:— 3 (115), 4 (208). 
5' Books which teach that English nouns do not 
have gender:— 70 (81), 93 (Brief Hist. Eng. 
Language, ^ 17), 87 (77, 78). 
3^ For definitions of the masculine, feminine, com- 
mon, and neuter gender, see references above. 
4- Gender not peculiar to nouns and pronouns in 
other languages : — Any Greek, Latin, or French 
grammar, 69 (511) 
o' That the same was once true of the English : — 

88(110), 70(80), 16(144). 
6^ Different ways of distinguishing male and fe- 
male:— 
1-' By direct words:— 1 (184), 16 (117), 9 (105). 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 53 

V That these words do not have gender:— 16 

(117; I), 70 (87). 
2^ Correlative terms :— 70 (88). 
8^ Principle — that the feminine forms are de- 
rived from the masculine — violated in hride- 
groorn, drake, gander, widower: — 70 (89), 
16(117,118,121). 
2= By composition:— 9 (109), 16 (118; 4), 1 (186). 
8' By suffixes : 

V Enumeration : 

i^ Teutonic suffixes:— 16 (120, 121), 70 (83). 
2"^ Romance suffixes:— 16 (119, 120), 70 (85). 
2* Rules:— 25 (p. 78) 
7- Poetical gender;— 1() (122; 6). 

LESSON V. 

9Io<1itieation$i of Nouns <'on tin iied— Case. 

[That so many teachers of grammar are pitifully ignorant of 
the real nature of case is as unnecessary as it is unquestionably 
true. There is nothing inlieront in tlie subject to render its 
tiiorougli mastery by a person of ordinary intelligence im- 
possible or even difficult. That tlie reverse should appear true 
can be attributed to nothing else than the loose and imperfect 
treatment the subject has received at the hands of the "book- 
makers " With few exceptions, when freed from ambiguity, 
the doctrines under this head set forth in our text-books will 
be found to agree only in l^eing absurd and in requiring the 
learner to memorize a large number of useless rules. 

In the following references I have endeavored (1) to point 
out the true nature of case, (2) to give something of its history, 
(8) and to explode some of the errors which grammarians have 
fostered and sought to clothe with the garb of truth.] 



References : 
1- Definition of case: 

1' Preparatory :— 69 (pp. 184, 185; ''), 29 (lesson 
III). 

2=5 Correct definitions :—70( 101), 25 (p, 84), 16 (138), 

4 (885), 51 (17, note), 98. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3'^ Definitions which are not correct : 
1* Definitions which confound case and aon^ 

struction:—! (p. 82), 9 (p. 144), 11 (29), 17 (39; 

162), 23 (333), 27 (§ 29), and all belonging to 

the following class : 
2* Definitions which might be correct, but which 

are not :— 5 (40), 8(56), 10 (268), 12 (54), 14 

(50; 1), 15(181), 26(71), 67 (258). 
3' Definitions which confound case and posU 

fion;-22(19), 1 (187).- 
2' Number of cases in English :— 69 (pp. 184,185; *), 
93 (Brief Hist. Eng. Language), 70 (101), 3 (71— 
74, 131), 16 (138; 2), 25 (pp. 84, 85), 69 (§ 74), 87 
(pp. 77, 271—275); 11 (29—33), 6 (36), 1 (188), 67 
(259; obs. 3— obs. 9), 2 (106), 4 (335—337). 
3^ For definitions of the nominative^ vocative, ac- 
cusative, genitive, dativp, instrumental, inde- 

(-NoTE.— Not only does 1 (187) appear to be incorrect, but it 
seems also to be inconsistent witli one of its able author's 
fundamental tenets, viz : "Case belongs only to nouns and 
pronouns:"— 1 (485; 844, remark; 848, remark). The author 
(and a great many teachers who use his admirable text-book) 
will not allow an infinitive which is the object of a transitive 
verb in the active voice to be parsed as being in the objective 
case. This is all very well provided the proper reason is given; 
but while the flippant remark, "case is a modification which 
does not belong to verbs," may sometimes silence, it will not 
always saftV.'/ f*^ thoughtful inquirer who has been led to be- 
lieve that frequently the position of a noun is its case. 

Why should it? Take the following : 

1. I like the song, 

2. I like to sing. 

We are told that H<mg is in the objective case, but that to xinv 
has no case. But in what does tlie ''objective case" of wwfl' con- 
sist? Certainly, not its form, for the same form will be used 
when the word is said lo be in the iioininotin- case.— Example : 
— Tlie song is l)eautif ul. Rut If its case consists in position only, 
wliy say that ^. «/»</ does not have c^se? The relation whicli 
the infinitive sustains to its verb is precisely the same as the 
relation which the noun sustains to its verl), and the means 
adopted to show this rei.Mtion is the samf.) 



CI.ASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 55 

pendent^ absolute ,1 etc., cases, see 70 (101) and 93 
for the first six, aud 93 for the others. 

42 For definitions of the nommaUve^ possessive, and 
objective cases, see 1 (189, 201, 215) and 67 (258). 

5- That, in ether languages, case is not a modifica- 
tion of nouns and pronouns exclusively : — Any 
Greek, Latin, or French grammar. 

6., That the same was once true of the English, but 
is not true now: — 16 (Inflection of adjectives, 
pp. 143, 144; the infinitive, p. 154), 2 (105), 70 
(109, 112, 206); 1 (485, 487, 488), 67 (258; obs. 2). 

T Derivation of the word case :— 2 (104), 85(111, 112). 

8^ How the possessive case is formed : — 1 (205, 206, 
207, 209, 211, 212, 213), 6 (37, 38, 39), 4 (263, 264), 
3 (133-135), 14 (50), 16 (133, 134, 135), 70(104), 
25 (p. 85). 

9^ Constructions requiring a noun to be in the pos- 
sessive case:— 1 (203, 204, 213^ 214), 15 (186, 187, 
188). 

Having consulted all these references, prepare an 
outline of case that will be continuous with that ©f 
gender. 



LESSON VI. 
<Joii!«triictioiis of Xoiiiis. 

[The studeut will find this subject very ably treated 
in Holbrook's Complete English Grammar: — 1 (pp. 
35—88, 114—121, 125—136). Let examples of each of 
the following constructions be prepared, and the whole 
arranged as a part of the general outline of nouns.] 
5^ Constructions 'of nouns. 

1"^ Definition — The construction of a noun is its 
use with respect to the other words in the 
sentence. 
2- Enumeration : 

1'^ The first construction — Subject of a finite 

verb. 
2^ The second construction — Predicated of the 

subject of an intransitive verb. 
3^ The third construction — Object of a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice. 
4'^ T\\Qifo\irth construction — Object of a prepo- 
sition. 
5^ The fifth construction — Absolute : 

U Absolute bj- direct address :- 

24 Absolute by pleonasm ; 

34 Absolute by exclanaatiou ; 

44 Absolute by inscription ;=:■ 

54 Absolute by subscription ;- • 

64 Absolute with a participle. 

t)' The sixth construction — Subject of a not- 
finite verb : 

14 The subject of an infinitive ; 
24 The subject of a participle. 

■' The seventh construction — In apposition : 

U In npposition with ;i noun or pronoun, or with 



CI.AS.S-JiUOK OF METHODS 57 

something which has the construction of a noun ; 
2^ In apposition witli a sentence wliich does not liave 
the ct.nstruetion of a noun.- 

8"^ The eighth construction — Limiting ti noun 
denoting a different thing. 

9^ The ninth construction — Lin.iiing a verb 
without a ]i)-eposition to show the rela- 
tion. 

]tlO»KI.N FOR PAK.SIXO XOl JVS. 

Thk three steps : 

1. Refer the word to its chiss, sub-class, etc, 

2. Name its modifications. 
8. Tell its construction. 

Sproial, directions : 

1. Let every step be fully developed. 
'>. In naming the modifleations, follow the order in 
which they have been discussed. 

3. Be careful in capitalizing ar d punctuating. 

Illustrations: 

I. 

Sestknci'. 

For gods delight in gods 

And thrust the weak aside ; 

To him who scorns their charities, 

Their arrns fly.open wide.— Emerson.. 

Parsing 

Gods: noun, common, simple, class; third, plural, 
. masculine, nominative ; first construction, sub- 
ject of rhilght. "'■ 

IT. 

Sb^tknck. 

Then I said, "I covet truth : 
Beauty is unripe childhood's cheat.''— Id. 
rAR^iNR. 

Truth: noun, common, simple, sui-generis; tliird, 
singular, neuter, nominative; third construc- 
tion, object of roiu't. 

="=By omitting these constructions, the list will serve lor pro- 
nouns also. 



58 EXai.ISH GRAMMAR. 

ni. 

Sentemci. 

Ages and climes remote, \<> thee impart 
What charms in Genius, and refines in Art ; 
Thee, in wliose liands the Iteys of Science dwell, 
The pensive portren>> of her holy cell. 

— TloOERS, (kir- to Mfmorii. 

PARSlnG. 

POKTRSS : noun, common, s niple, class ; second, singu- 
lar, feminine, nominative; seventh il^^ con- 
struction, apposition with thee. 
IV. 

Sbntence. 

Sir Guu de Montfort Wjas as brave a knight as ever 
laid lance in rest, or swung his glittering battle- 
axe.— T. S. Arthur. 

Tabstng. 

Sir Guy DE Montfort : noun, proper, complex, desig- 
nates a person; third, singu- 
lar, masculine, nominative; first 
construction, subiect of n-nn. 
V. 

Sb.ntencb. 

I past beside the reverend walls 
In which of old I wore the gown ; 
I roved at random thro' the town, 
And saw the tumult of the halls; 
And heard once more in college fanes 
The storms their high-built organs make, 
And thundei-musir, rolling, shake 
The prophets blazoned on the panes. 

—Tennyson. 

Pabsimo. 

TnuNDER-MUSic: noun, common, compound, class; 
third, singular, neuter, nominative ; 
sixth (!') construction, subject of 

[to] shake. 



LESSOIV VII. 

PRONOUNS. 
Definitions, Classes, Etc. 

li References : 
1^ Definition of the pronoun : 
P Preparatory :— 69 (} 28), 12 (82 ; Remarlxs 1, 2,3), 
6 (44; Note), 70 (123), 3 (33), 4 (314; *), 87 (258, 
259), 9(61; fine print), 16 (25; 1, and 47 ; 31). 
2^ Definitions stated :— 93, 94, 1 (227), 51 (§ 28), 4 
(314), 14 (68), 17 (58; 228), 12 (32), 2 (24), 3 (34), 
25 (p. 68), 67 (296). 

2^ Relation of the pronoun to its antecedent : 
V Definition of antecedent —67 (296; obs. 1), 1 

(228), 11 (57; 2) ; 10 (198 [sub.]), 25 (p. 65). 
2' Observations:— 1 (229, 230), 14 (pp. 70, 71), 67 
(296, 297). 
32 Number of pronouns in English :— 67 (296), 9 (61). 
42 Classification of pronouns: 
1=^ General :— 67 (308 : obs. 38), 
23 To be consulted :— 

1 (231), 5 (55), 9 (p. 127), 14 (69), 22 (15), 27 (§ 36), 
67 (297); 7 (82), 10 (177), 15(132; 3), 17(58; 
232), 39 (15; 18) ; 6 (44), Kirkham's Grammar 
. (p. 96) ; 8 (65), 11 (59) ; 12 (33), 26 (78) ; 16 (25, 
26, 33); 3 (152), 70 (125); 25 (p. 65). 
52 For definition-* of personal, relative, awMnferrog- 

ative pronouns, see references given above. 
6^ The sub-classes of the per.sonal pronons: — 1 (233, 

234, 235), 14 (70), 5 (55), 10 (186), 11 (61). 
7' Enumeration, history, and peculiarities of the per- 
sonal pronouns:— 3(153— 168), 4(342—352), 6 (45, 
46), 16 (pp. 25—32), 70 (129, 131—134). 93. 
8- Modifications of the personal pronouns: — 16 (137— 



()() ENGLISir GRAMMAR. 

141), 70 (126, 127, 128, 130), «>9 (i^ 29i, 1(207—299); 
67 (309—319), 4(319—323). 

9- Sub-classes of relative pronouns:—! (237), 17 (66; 

257). 

10- Enumeration, history, and peculiarities of the 
relative pronouns:— 1 (238— 260, 264), 17 (67-69), 
3 (174—184), 4 (366-371), 16 (38-47), 51 (31, 32), 
70 (150-160), 67 (299; ohs 4—35), 72 (pp. 24, 25), 
75 (?<'s 135-141), 93. 

11- Substitutes for the relative pronouns :— 16 (38 — 
40), 2 (53—54), 3 (185-187), 7 ( pp 168, 169), 9 
(82), 93. 

12- Modification^ of the relative pronouns : -16 ( 141 — 
143), 69 (UH)), 

13- Enumeration, history, and peculiariiies of tlie 
interroj?ative pronoutis : — 70 (145— 149), 16 (33), 
3 (169—173), 1 (265—266), 67(308; obs. 36—37). 

14- Mo lifi(^ation of the interrogative pronouns : — 
16 (141). 

To THE Teacher : The outline the student makes, ^fter hav- 
ing consulted the references given above, should be as com- 
plete as ttie one made of the noun, in all th tt pertains to 
elassifleation, modifications, etc., and should contain, besides, 
the special discussion of each pronoun. 

Let sufficient drill in parsmu pronouns be given, at this 
stage, to make the student thoroughly familiar with all forms 
of the pronouns,— ^j/'/ as well as recent. 

MODELS FOK PARStlVO PROXOITXS. 

Sevtk.vce. 

My golden spurs now bring to me. 
And bring to me my richest m;iil, 
For to-morrow /go over land and sea 
In search of the Holy Grail.— Lowkt.l. 

Harking. 

My: pronoun, perso ;al, simple; first singular, com- 
mon, possessive; eighth construction, limiting 
xpvrH. 

.Me: pronoun, personal, simple; first, singular, com- 
mon, objective ; fourth construction, object of to. 

I : pronoun, personal, simnle ; first, singular, common, 
nominative; first construction, subject of //o. 



CliASS-liOOK OF METHODS. 01 

II. 

.Sk::te>ce. 

O Thou, whose presence went before 

Onr fathers in their weary way, 

As with thii chosen moved of yore 

The fire by night, the cloud l^y day !— Whitti.er. 

I'arsi.vg. 

Thou: pronoun, personal, simple; second, singular, 
masculine, nominative; fifth (1*) construction. 
Their: pronoun, personal, simple; third, plural, 
masculine, possessive; eighth construction, 
limiting way. 
Thy: pronoun, personal, simple; second, singular, 
masculine, possessive; eighth construction, limit- 
ing \peopl.e\. •';■.■••' v. , ■■' 
III. 
Sentknck 

For /r/io maketli .thqe to diflfer ;.fr<\m, iinother ? and 
what hast thou ihat thou hast not rgeeived ? 

—Bible. 

PAR<!rNR. 

Who: pronoun, interrogative; ihird, singular, com- 
mon, nominative ; first construction, subject of 
ntaketh. 

That: pronoun, relative, simple ; third, , neuter, 

^ ; third construction, object of haxt received. 

IV. 

SKNTENCe. 

For ichat is a man profited, if he shall gain the whole 
world and lose his own soul?— Id. 

Parsikg. 

What: pronoun, interrogative; third, , neuter, 

; nintli construction, limiting is profited. 

V. 

Sentkncb. 

And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdo.n 
of heaven : and lohatsoever thou shaltbindon earth 
shall be bound in heaven : and whatsoever thou 
Shalt loose on earth shall be loosed 1" heaven.— Id. 

Parsivg. 

Whatsoever: pronoun, relative, compound; third, 

singular, neuter, ; double con- 

struciion, object of «/!o// iim/, and sub- 
ject of >«h</Jl be bound. 



LESSOR VIII. 

ARTICVLES.- 
Definitions, Classification. Etc. 

1' Rplorences : 

P Detitiition :— 1 (860), 6 (22), 9 (198), 17 (48), 67 (225). 

2^ The article but an adjective:— 2 (56), 8 (52), 4 
(474), 11 (44), 14 (56), 15 (139), 25 (p. 62), aud a 
great many others, among which are 16, 69 
(§ 91), and 70, But see 67 (2J6; obs. 2) 

82 Classitieation :— 1 (862). 

42 Origin and peculiarities of the:— 70 (135—137), 
6 (28), 16 (57—60), 1 (874), 67 (1051, 1052, and 
227; obs. 6—10), 98. 

5' History and peculiarities of a or an :— 70 (118), 
2 (59). 1 (867—370), 67 (1052, and 229; obs. 12—80). 

62 General discussion:— 2 (294), 4 (474—480), 5 (181— 
183), 6(138, 134), 8(429-438), 9 (pp. 172— 181), 
12(218; 26—31), 13 (140, 141), 25 (pp. 198—199). 

COM STRUCTION. 

Articles have but one construction— Limiting a noun at- 
tributively. 



-It will be observed that notwithstanding Goold Brown's 
earnest protest many of our progressiT e grammarians are bent 
on "degrading the article" from its ancient rank and dignity 
as a separate part of speech, and making it a mere sub-class of 
the adjective. Should the teacher prefer doing so, the outline 
of the article may be deferred till next lesson. 



LESS(»X IX. 

AI>.It:CTIVES. 

DefinilionK, Classifications, Etc. 

]' References; 
P The adjective (lefined :— 1 (301; a, 6), 1^ (25), 8 
(37-39), 4 420-426), 5 (46), 16 (47, 48), 17 (47; 
195), 22(11), 93. 
2^ Genesis of the adjective the same with that of the 

noun :— 87 (275)). 
3^ Propriety of considering adjectives a separate 

part of speech :— 6 (40). 67 (268; obs. 1—2). 

P Classification of adjectives: 

P General classes: -12 (64), 1 (316), 16(48, 52, 56), 

14 (56), 9 (205-213), 3 (195), 7 (86, 87, 88, 92), 

25 (p. 62), 67 (270), 51 {'^. 2'^); 3 (192), 10 (322— 

323) ; 69 (pp. 257-8; [26], [27], [30]), 17 (p. 51). 

1* The discriptive adjectives : -14 (63), 16 (56), 

10 (822—326), 69 (^'s 86—90). 
2* The definitive adjectives :— 8 (115), 5(47), 14 
(56, Qualified by 67 [226; obs. 2]). 
P The numerals— 70 (118—122), 3(212—218), 
10 (327), 14 (61), 16 (52-56), 11 (50), 67 
(272; obs. 4-6); 6 (136; 4—6), 51 (72; 
Remark 11); 12 (218; 25), 15 (198 [cau- 
tion]).' 
25 The pronominals:— 70 (135— 144j, 16(48— 
51), 14 (59), 10 (329), 3 (204—211) ; 8 (420— 
428), 6 (139), 51 (72; Remarks 7—10). 
2^ Groups of adjectives :— 25 (pp. 63, 64). 

MODIFICATIONS OF ABJFCTITES. 

1^ Referenees: 
V Modifications which adjectives have lost: — 70 
109, 112, 113, 135), 16 (144), 1 (126). 



♦ )4 ENGLISH CRAMMER, 

2^ Moditications which have been r.tanjed : 

l"* Inflections to show the diflferenceof number:— 

3 (196), 1 (329), 10 (354—357). 
2' Comparison :— 4 (449, 450), 67 (287), 10 (330), 70 
(114), 10(338). 
P Decrees of comparison :—l (332, 337), 7 (93— 
96), 16 (144). 
1-^ The positive degree:— 25 (p. 193), 67 (278; 

obs. 1 — 5), 
2^ The comparative degree: -25 (p, 193), 9 (p. 
194), 67 (287 ; obs. 9), 8 (139), 10 (335, 339), 
15 (196—199). 
8^ The superlative degree :— 25 (p. 194i, 10 (336), 
8 (138), 9 (p. 194), 14 ( p. 64r, 6?-t279 ; obs. 
'■'' ■■'-'y ■ -6-^8,-10^15): ' .-- :. „.^- -■ - 

2' Terms of comparison :— 25 (p. 194), 6(136-7; 
7.8), 8(411,412), 12(215-5; 14, 15), 10 (pp. 
299-300; 3, 4, 5), 2 (288—391), 1 (680—683, 
336), 5 (177-8; 7, 4, 5), 51 (72 ; Remarl^s 4, 5, 
6). 
3* Modes of comparison : 

P EegiiIarly:-70 (114), 8 (140), 69 (? 94), 10 
(341—348), 2 (128—131), 1 (239—241), 16 
(145, 146). 
2' Irregularly :— 69 (p. 305, *). 

1" With vowel cliange in comparative and 

superhitive; 
2^^ From obsolete roots, and 
3*5 From adverbial roots of time and place : — 
70 (116), 16 (146—149), 2 (132), 8 (141— 
145), 1 (342), 9 (p. 11), 3 (202). 
4« Superlatives in m:— 70 (117), 8 (146), 3 
(302). 
4* Peculiarities ot comparison : 
1^^ Adjectives redundant : 
!« In the positive:— 16 (146). 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 65 

2'' In the superlative :— 18 (349), 1 (344), 16 

(147—149). 
3'* In both comparative and superlative: — 
4 (463), 5 (51), 1 (350), 16 (147—149), 8 
(144). 
2^ Adjectives defective: 
1« III the positive:— 1 (346), 8 (147), 16 (147— 

149), 10 (350). 
2« In the comparative: 1 (147), 8 (148), 16 

(147—149), 10 (351). 
3'' In both positive and superlative:— 10 
(352), 70 (pp. 93, 95 [rather, after, etc.]). 
35 Double comparisons:— 8 (142, 413), 5(178; 
6), 12 (216; 16), 25 (p. 195), 4 (466, 467), 1 
(692; Remark 1). 
4^ Adjectives denoting qualities which cannot 
exist in different degrees:— 4 (456,457), 8 
(416), 12 (71), 5 (52), 26 (93), 7 (p. 103; obs. 
7), 25 (p. 193, ''Consequence''), 1 (353 ; 692, 
Remark 2). 

Miscellaneous Facts in Itcgard to Adjectives. 

References : 

1^ Pecu iarities of construction: 
l'^ Limiting adjectives :— 8 (403), 1 (677—678), 5 

(177), 14 (p. 226; 13), 25 (p. 194). 
2' Limiting a plirase or sentence used as the sub- 
ject of a verb:— 1 (302), 2 (285), 6 (136; 2), 8 

(405, 407), 17(197; 684). 
3'^ As the factitive object of a verb, limiting the 

direct object :— 3 (269—371). 
4'* Limiting a noun or pronoun as an appositive: — 

3 (376), 
5"^ The so-called indefinite use of adjectives: — 6 

(136; 3), 8 (406), 17 (197; 683), 26 (191; 12), 

1 (493, 513). 



66 ENOLT^H GRAMMAR. 

2^ Position of tbe adjective : -8 (417-419), 1 (664— 

672), 6 (136 ;5), 4 (427— 432), 5 (177-9 ; 6,9,10; 9; 

10, 11, 12), 17 (199, 200). 
S-' Number of alj.u'tives in Engli h :— 9 (203), 67 

(270; obs. 1). 
4- Origin iiud meaning of the term :— 5 (46), 6 (40), 

93. 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF AI>JE<"TlVEfe:. 

[This suhje(!t is very ably treated in 3 (350—378). 
Let the class be thoroughly (h-illed in par-^inu- adject- 
ives, before takim? up the next les-on.] 

Adjectives have four coMstructi >ns : 
1- The first t;onstruction — Limiting a noun atfribut- 
• iveiy. 

2. The second consrnu'tion — Limi'ing a iinim or pro- 

noun appositely. 

3. The third construction — The fa-five ol>je:t of a 

transitive verb, limitin;^ the direct object. 

4. The fourth construction — Th complement <>f an in- 

transirivH verb, limiting tbe sullj^'ct. 
Examples of tlie.-e constructions; 
1. The first construction : — (1) The beautiful spring 

has come. (2) iVI y stay hei^e mu t be brief. 
2 The second construction: — (1) A cloud of sm<»ke, 

black, silent, horrible, pu/ied a hun«lred feet into 

tbe air. (2) Me miserable! which way r-ball I 

fly, etc, J 

3. The third construction — (1) She carries her head 

high, (2) He walked himself weany 

4. The fourth construction :--!l ) The man \s honest. 

(2) He is tall. (3) To climl) a high bill is diffi.cuU. 
(4) We expect him to be dilligent. 



LESSON X. 

[With most classes it will doubtless be expedient to 
make two excursions over this subject: first, looking 
up the large-type references and preparing the out- 
line accordingly; and then (immediately) supple- 
menting tills w rk by the thorough investigation 
which the small, r-typ;^ references suggest.] 
V References : 

lo The detinition of the verb: 

Is D'fficnlty o: framing a iauitltss definition: — 

67 (— ; obs. 1), 25 (p. 826; note 5), 17 (322). 
2* The verb defined :-] (375), 10 (361). 
3! Definitions to be compared:— 25 (p. CO), 20 (96), 69 (44, to 
[6i), 2 (28; [b]), 8 (29), 4 (21), 6 (55), 67(330), 7 (97), 9(238, 239), 
11 (79), 16 (63), 22 (28), 17 (79), 51 (37), 8 (151), 14 (80). 

2'^ ('lasification of verbs: 

j.s iij^^ regards form" :-— 2 (142, 143), 5 (78, 79), 6 
(66), 8 (200-204), 10 (364-366), 11 (82), .26 (99), 
25 (p. 66; ''subci.-i ses"), 14 (84). 

-Perliaps the aim of this classification could be realized as 
fully and as readilj^, and, at the same time, valuable additions 
be made to the learner's stock of informalion, by adopting the 
p:oper principle of division, viz : As to mode of expressing 
the past tense. On this basis we should have two classes of 
verbs— Ti.e Strong and The Weak- 

The s«roMgr verbs add nothing to the root to form the past 
tense, but effect this by means of- radicle vowel change. 
Formerly, the passive participles of strong verbs ended in en, 
but in many instances the ending has disappeared. The strong 
verbs are the oldest in the language. 

The a-t((k verbs ai-e such as form their past tense by adding d 
or T to the unch.anged root of the present, frequently with the 
connecting vowel e. Their passive participles, without excep- 
tion, end in « or t. 

For full discussion of strong and weak verbs, see 70 (184—109), 
16 (190—202), 25 (pp. 98,99j. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

li Meaning of the suffix ed:— 2 (143; [b]), 16 

(159), 70(195). 
2^ Number of regular verbs in English : — 2 (143 : 

[a]), 67 (332; ob^. 3). 
3' Number of irregu'ar verbs in English : -2 

[143; [b]), 67 (332; obs. 3). 
4* Other classes of verbs with respect to form :— 
1 (378—387), 17 (83; 325-828), 27 (p. 90; 
"Specification''). 
5^ The subject treated difl-rently :— 3 (224—226). 
■ 23 ''As to use" :— 1 (388-394, 400, 401 ), 6 r 61 - 66), 
9 (247—254), 12, 8 (152—156;, 5 (67-68). 
14 The same discussed under "As to relation to ob- 
jects":— 10 (379— 389). 
24 Tiie same discussed under "Complete and incomplete 

verbs":— 2 (61—64), 4 (m, 67\ 
31 Tlie same discussed under "As to meaning":— 70 (175, 

176), 51 (37; 4-6). 
H Tliese classifications neither iiritural nor necess iry :— 

25 (p. 325; note 4). 

51 Various classifications made on bases too numerous 

for separate mention but intended to serve in the 

• place of 2^ :— 17 (80 ; 317— S23, appendix VIII.), 14 ;82), 11 

(80, 81), 22 (28— 30), 23 (4.38—4.50), 26 (97, 98), 67 (.831, 332 ; 

obs. 4—16). 

6i A careful discussion :— 69 (? 45), (See also Kirkham's 

Grammar pp. 43-52, "Philosophical Note"). 
7* Is the copula a verb?— 25 (p. 327; note 6), 

(The other references given above). 
81 Is IS a copula ?-69 (? 46), (The other referen- 
ces given above). 
3' As to principal parts :- -10 (373, 374), 1 (230), 6 
(71, 72; III., IV.), 8 (238—240), 11 (117), 2 
(185), 14 (129, 130), 51 (61, 62), 69 (pp 156, 
157), 67 (396—404), 
1* Why the principal parts of a verb are so call- 
ed :— 25 (p. 98), 1 (529). 
43 As to relative importance:— 10 (390— 392), 27 
(H8). 



CLASS BOOK OF METHODS. G9 

V The auxiliary verbs digeussed : 

17(83-90), 6(72—74), 11 (88, 89), 8 (212— 227), 
26 (111—113), 14 (111-13), 25 (p. 204, 205), 
16 (162—179), 9 (304 314), 70 (222). 
32 Modifications : 
P Voice : 
1* Voice defined:— 1 (411), 10 fS94), 26 (101), 14 
(87; 1), 6 (56), 11 (84; 1), 17 (90; 366), 3 
(301), 25 (p. 111). 
2* Number of voices in Englisli :— 1 (411), 10 

(395), 51 (g50; ij. 
3^ Nuo]berof voices in tlie Greek language: — 

(Any Grtek grammar), 25 (p. 112). 
4^ Active and Passive voices defined:—! (412, 
414), 11 (84; 3, 4), 17 (90; 368, 369), 26 (101), 
25 (pp. HI, 333). 
5^ Do intransitive verbs iiave vdice? 
P Tbey (Jo noi :— 10 (398). 
2' Tbey do:— 1 (413). 

3^ Ail S(jrts of doctrines variously stated: — 
5(69 [definition], 70; 3—7), 8(158), 9 (p. 
• 199 [definition], 259, 260), 10 (399, 400), 17 
(91, 92; 374, 375). 
6' General discussion of voice:- 1 (415— 420), 2 
(172-176), 7 (101. 102), 9(255-262), 11 (84), 
14 (87), 15 (199—202), 17 (90, 91), 26 (101), 27 
(? 18), 70(179,\ 16(155), 69 (H7). 
7' The tcrn-.s active voice and 2^^<"'^sive voice of 
little or no use in Englisli :— 67 (365; obs. 
18 19). 
2' TcuH- 

1' T.ns<. d,>fine(l:— 1 (435), 26 (IqO), 8 (171, 2 

(138). 
2- Number of t. nses:-70 (181), 11 (97), 8 )172, 
173), 3 (232), 2 (139, 146), 27 (?^58), 67 (341 ; *), 
25 (pp. 94-97). 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3' The teu.ses defiued :— 6 (59, 60). 
4^ The tenses discussed:— 11 (97—105), 27 (H6), 
14 (98—107), 5 (73-75), 4 (509-516, 556, 587, 
554), 26 (106, 107), 8 (171—191), 51 (49), 7 
(113— 119), 16(185—189), 67(340—348), 69(g's. 
48—51, 57—61, 63). 
3'^ Mode: 
1^ Mode defined:— 1 (421), 2(150), 26 (102), 16 
(152), 8(159), 11 (90; 1), 3 (283), 17 (98 ; 876), 
67 (336). 
2^ Number of mo'les:— 10 (406), 14 (89; 4), 
(Kirkham's Gram, p, 141, note), 11 (90; 2), 
9 (p. 200), 3 (233), 17 (93; 377). 
P Are infinitives and participlefi properly call- 
ed modes? 
1« They are not :— 2 (165; [m]). 14 (89; 3), 

i0(406). 
2" They are:— 1 (476, 477), 9 (272), 17 (98; 
377), 26 (102). 
3^ The indicative mod<Mletii)ed and dispiissed : — 
1 (428, 489), 2 (151—158), 9 (268), 27 (?^^2), 10 
(407—409, 426, 430, 433, 486) 
4* Thesubjunctive modedefined anddiscusst'«l : — 

I (427—481, 4.^8—462), 27 (^55), 10(410-416), 
8 (165, 166), 17 (94, 95; 383. 391), 11 (92), 9 
(264—267), 51 (42), 67 (337; obs. 4-7), 16 
(182—184). 

1'^ The subjunctive .•node()l)s<.lvsc,'nf :— 1 (481), 

2(157—161), 27 (§55; 4), 67 (339; obs 8 — 

10), 69 (§'s 53, 64). 

5* The mode defined iwni discussed:—! (424 — 

426,451 456). 2 (154k 27 (§58), 17 (93, 94; 

380-882), K) (417-419, 428 482, 435. 487, 441 ), 

II (98), 51 (44), 9 (268, 269). 

]■' Tlie potential mode a mvtb :— 67 (887; ob< 
3), 27 (p. 108; R.Miiark 4), 16 (152; 4), 8 

. (233). 



CLASS IJOOK Ol'^ METHODS. 71 

6' The imperati v'i^ iiiodedf^fined and discussed : — 
1 (432-434, 464), 10 (420—423, 429), 11 (94), 
27 (^54), 9 (27.), 271), 67 (240; obs. 11), 16 
(153, 154). 
7' Tlie "infinite mode" (includes both infinitives 
■•md partieipie.">) defined and discussed: — 1 
(476-479). ' 
1' The infiuiiiv:— 1 (480—496, 888-899), 10 
1 475— 482), 17 (95, 96, 239-242), 11 (95), 70 
(206), 16 (154, 155), 27 (§ 56), 2 (164, 165), 3 
(236, 438—451), 67 (All the references ^iven 
ill the index), 89 (317). 
2' The participle:—! (497-527, 888, 900—912), 
17 (Alts. 452—463), IX) (483—501),, 3 (452— 
462), 17 (243—245), 11 (86), 27 (§ 57), 23 
(495-504), 26 (104), 6 (62, 63), 2 (166-171), 
(Kirkhani's Gram. [Section V.]), 5 (76, 
77), 16 (155— 157), 70 (207), 67 (All the 
n IVrt-nces ijivcn in the index), 89 (197, 203, 
294, 649, 656), 88 (72—74), 86 (23—30), 17 
(324-329), 
8' Gem lal diSfU>sion of modes:— 69 (^'s 54, 55), 
9 (i)p. 207, 208). 
4^ St.ylt^: 

P S'yie <'efined :—( Most grain -nai i:ir>s treat this 
mo.litication uii'fer Forms), 14 (109; 1), 10 
(443). 
2' The diflt r» nt styles d< fined and discnsse ' : — 
1 (403-410), 14 (409, 410), 11 (106), 10 (443- 
451 ), 51 (52—56), 69 (^^'s 60-62). 
h'' Persons jiiid numbers of verlt- defined and dis- 
,.n.-(-l:-10 (452-462), 14 (116), 9 (pp. 109— 
212:, 16 (159. 160), 8 (205-211), 11 (107), 26 
(108), 17 (107, 108), 51 (51), 27 (i 68), 70 (182, 
' 200\ 25 ( pp 97, 98), 67 (343-360), 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF VERBS. 

[The Student is referred to 1 (482-484,507—510), 8 
(439_459)j 10 (477—514) for the construction of infini- 
tives and participles.] 

I. A finite verb is construed with its subject, with 
which it should agree in person and number. 

II. Infinitives and participles are said not to be 
Iwiited by ihe person and numbi r of their subj<^cts. 
By this is meant that they un<h ru^o no variation in 
form to show person and number. This fact, together 
with their merely assuming action, beiiiir, or state of 
being, on the part of their subjects, enab'e^ us fo use 
them in three different kinds of constru Minn, n!)ii(M>t 
which a finite verb may have : 

1. Infinitives and participles may have any con-it uc- 

tion possible for a noun, exctpt that neither may 
be absolute by direct address or by sub cripiion. 

2. An infinitiveor a participle may h:<. ve any co!istru<*- 

tion possible for an adjecMve except the tlui-i. 

3. An infinitive or a partic pJe may hive any const ruc- 

tion possible for an adverb except the fourth. 

MODELS FOR PARSING VERBS. 

I. 

Sbxtknck. 

He wtio, in an enliglitened and literary society, rrs- 
piren to be a great poet, must first become a little 
child.— .Macaut:,ay. 

Parsino. 

AspiRKS: verb, regular, intransitive; third, singular, 
active, indicative, present; relating to he for 
its subject. 

II. 

Sbntkncb. 

.Wee, modest, crimson-tipped flow'r, 
Thou's met me in an evil hour ; 
For I maun crush amang the stoure 

Thy slender stem : 
To spare thee now is past my pow's. 

Thou bonnie gem. 

— HUKNS. 



CLASS-BOOK OF MP^THODS. 73 

Parsing. 

To SPARE : verb, regular, transitive ; , , ac- 
tive, infinitive, present; construction of a 
noun, subject of is. 
III. 

Sentence. 

Tliere are some problems so full of delirious pleas- 
ure to the mind that rather than solve them at 
once by running the risk of disenchantment, the 
doubter prefers to linger awhile in doubt.— Tilton. 

Pausing 

To LINGER : verb, regular, intransitive; , , 



active, infinitive, present ; construction of 
a noun, o))ject id 2) refers. 
IV. 

Se.vtencb. 

Gaily chattering to the clattering 

Of the brown nuts downward pattering. 

Leap tlie squirrels, red and gray. 

— WlIITriEK. 
Parsing. 

Chattrring : verb, regular, intransitive ; , , 



active, participle, present ; construction 
of an adject ve, limiting squirrels. 

LESSON XI. 
Adverbs. 

References : 
12 Adverbs defined :— 1 (557), 7 (125), 26 (122), 4(673), 

25 (p. 67), 8 (241), 16 (66), 69 (§ 92; [l]-[4]). 
2- Adverbs classified : 

r^ As to signification :— 67 (421, 422). 16(67—75), 
17 (139), 11 (124), 10 (pp. 176, 177), 14 (134), 6 
(87), 3 (311), 8 (245-263), 1 (562-587), 25 (pp. 
67, 68 [''Groups of Adverbs"]). 

2' As to function:— 1 (588—591), 25 (p. 67 ["Sub- 
Classes"]), 8 (268), 14 (135), 17 (140; ,534). 
32 Modification of adverls:— 1 (591—607), 16(151), 

26 (127), 8 (265-269), 67 (424, 425), 69 (i^'.s 94, 95). 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

4- Derivation of adverbs: 

r^ Adverbs derived from nouns:— 70 (224). 

2' Adverbs derived from adjectivt^s : — 70 (225), 

3' Adjectives derived from pronoun'^: — 70 (226). 

4"^ Adverbs derived from prepositions: — 70 (227). 

o-^ Compound adverbs: — 70 (227). 

6^. General discussion :— 69 {'i 93). 
5, The functions of adverbs:— 69 (§ 92). 
62 The conjunctive adverb:— 67 (422, 428). 
roxsTRrcTioxs of ab>vkrbs. 
Adverbs have four principal constructions: 

1. The fi7'sf construction — Limiting a verb. 

2. The second construction — Limitinj^^ an adjective. 

3. Tne ?'/i?>rf construction — Limitinjr an adverb. 

4. Tlie /owri^/i construction — Limiting: a phrase which 

performs the function of nn adjective or adverb. 
To THK Teacher:— Letsufficient drill be given in parsing ad- 
verbs. An adverb is parsed by classifying it, naming its inodi- 
flcations, and telling its construction. 
I. 

Skntknck. 

He did the work well. 

Parsing. 

Well : adverb, expresses m inner ; comparative degree ; 
first construction, limits did. 

II. 

Sentence. 

He ^s too nianlj' to do .so. 

Pau«!ing. 

Too: ;>dverb, expresses degree: does not admit of com- 
parison; second construction, limits manh/. 
III. 

Sentence. 

The horse ra : rffii rapidly. 

Pausing. 

Very: adverb, expresses degree; does not admit of 
• comparison ; second con.struction, limits rapid- 

ly. 

IV. 

Skntknck. 

He traveled nrarhf around tiie world. 
Pae-sisg. 

Nearly: adverb, expresses degree (of completenes.s) ; 
comparative degree; fourth construction, 
limits around the loorld- 



LESSON XII. 

PREPOSITIOSrS. 

li References : 

12 Definition:—! (608), 10 (583), 27 (^9), 4(715), 5 

(104), 16 (78), 7 (128), 25 (p. 68), 8 (46), 93. 
2^ Classes of prepositions : 

1'^ As to use:— 1 (610-617), 16 (88—99), 17 (Art. 

545)' 
2-^ As to structure:—! (618—622), 70 (229—231), 25 
(pp, 68, 69; "Sub-CIi)sses), 17 (315). 
32 Number of prepositions in Engiisli :— 2 (74). 
42 Propriety of applying ibe name preposition to 
this part of speech :— 4 (716), 6 (91 ; Note 1), 8 
(270), 69(?,81; [3], [4], [5]). 
5^ Diseuspion of certain preposition^: 9 (i)p. 251 — 
258), 16 (79—88). 
1" Is TO a preposition when used with a verb 
which is in the infinitive mode? 
1^ It is not:— 1 (487), 8 (271 ; Remark at top of 

page 125). 
2* It is:— 3 (440), 17 (Art. 549), 26 (103 ; 5). 
3^ Grammars which explain without explain- 
ing:— 12 (80; 4), 4 (657—660), 11 (95; Rem. 
1), 9 (329). 
¥ The subject fully examined :-67 (337, ubs. 1 ; 
361, obs. 1; 615-621). 
6-' General discu'^sion :-ll (ISO), 12 (pp. 135—140, 
236— 240), 4 (715— 737), 25 (pp. 209, 210), 3 (Ail 
references given in the index), 69 (^'s81, 82, 84), 
67 (All the references given in the index). 

To THE Teacher:— After outlining the preposition, let the 
student prepare exercises similar to tho:^e in 2.'i (pp. 69— 71), 
thus giving the derivation, signification, and different shades 
of meaning of every preposition found in 1 (620). 70(230,281), 
and the dictionary should be consulted in preparing these 
exercises. 

This should be foUowe > hy some little drill in parsing prepo- 
sitions. A preposition is parsed by classifying it, mentioning 
the antecedent and subsequent terms of relation, and telling 
what relation is shown. 



LESSON XIII. 

CON JUNCTIONS. 

1^ Referenees: 

12 Definition:—! (628), 7(129), 9 (382), 16 (100), 8 
(279), 14 (142), 3 (48), 4 (738). 

2'' Classes of conjunctions:— 1 (629—635), 14(143), 
9 (384, 385, 386), 16 (101—113), 3 (328-330), 17 
(Arts. 565—567), 15 (152—154), 25 (pp. 73, 74), 2 
(81—85), 5 (109, 110), 70 (232), 67 (430). 

3- Derivation and meaning of the word conjunc- 

tion .•— 5 (109), 
4' Observations:— 67 (428—432, 670—677), 25 (p. 209), 
9 (pp. 263—267), 12 (152—155, 245—247), 8 (281— 
285), 6 (89). 

To THE Teacher :— After outlining the conjunction, the stu- 
dent should be drilled on the derivation, signification, etc., of 
conjunctions by means of exercises similar to those prepared 
in the preceding lesson. Consult 25 (pp. 74, 75). A conjunc- 
tion is parsed by classifying it, and n<^ming the terms which 
it connects. 

LESSON XIV. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

1^ References : 
r^ Definition :-17 (Art 555), 4 (775), 9 (394), 8 (287). 
2^' Classification :— 25 (pp. 76, 77), 14 (145), 8 (288), 3 

^334). 
3'^ The name interjection :— 5 (112), 17 (Art. 556), 6 

(93). 

4- Tlie interjection not a ''part of speech" : — 70 (233), 

16 (114),' 3 (832). 
5'^ General remarks:— 12 (156), 8 (289, 290), 67 (446— 
448, 690—696), 3 (333, 335, 336). 

To THE Teacher :— No time should l)e vmate I in attempting 
topro-w interjections; but a complete outline should be made, 
and one or two lessons on derivations, etc., would be profit- 
able. 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 77 

ADDITIONAL KXERCISES FOR PARSING. 

1. A man of inaxiins only is like a Cyclops with one eye, 
and that eye placed in the back of his head. 

— S. T. COLERIBGE, 

2. I, for one, do not call the sod under my feet ray coun- 
try ; but language, religion, laws, government, blood,— 
identity in these makes men of one country.— Id. 

3. This above all,— to thine own self be true ; 
And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to auj' man. 

— Shakspere. 

4. Come what come m^ay, 
Time and the hour runs through the roughest day. 

-Id. 

5. Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore, 
So do our minutes hsisten to their end ; 

Each chajiging place with that whicli goes before. 

In sequent toil all forwards do contend. 

Nativity, once in the main of light. 

Crawls to maturity, wherewith being crowned. 

Crooked eclipses 'gainst his glory fight. 

And Time that gave doth now his gift confound. 

Time doth transfix "the flourish set on youth, 

And delves the parallels on beauty's brow ; 

Feeds on the rarities of nature's truth, 

And nothing stands but for his scythe to mow. 

-Id. 

6. The musty old maxim is wise. 

Although with antiquity hoary; 
What an excellent homily lies 
In the motto, Ne crede colori ! 

.—J. G. Saxe. 

7. When all the sky is draped in black, 
And, beaten by tempestuous gales, 

Thy shuddering ship seemes all a-wreck, 
Then trim again thy tattered sails ; 
To grim Despair be not a prey ; 
Bethink thee, "This will pass away !" 

—Id. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

All the gold we leave behind us 
When we turn to dust aj^ain 
(Though our avarice may blind us), 
We have gathered quite in vain ; 
Since we neither can direct it, 
Bj^ the winds of fortune tossed, 
Nor in other worlds expect it, 
What we hoarded,' we have lost. 
—Id. 



That is the story of old John Burns ; 

Tills is the moral the reader learns : 

In lighting the battle, the question's whether 

You'll show a liat that is white, or a feather. 

—Bret Harte. 



10. (x-hy) (X— y): 



11. A's fortune is $0,000, B's is 2% times as much, and C's is 
a mean proportional between A's and B's ; required C's. 

—Brooks. 

12. "Thj' name and person ! S:ixon, stand !" 
'■^A «^/*fiHj7er."— " What dost thou require ?" 
"liest and a guide, and food, and fire." 

—Scott. 



IH. To die,— to sleep,— 

To sleep !— perchance to.dream !— ay, there^s the rnh f 

— Skakspere. 

14. Then to her yron wagon she betakes. 

And with herbeares the fowle welfavoured witch ; 
Through mirksome aire her ready way she makes. 
Her twy fold teme, of which two blacke as pitch, 
And two were browne, yet each to each unlich, 
Did softly swim awaj^, ne never stamp, 
Unlesse she chaunst theire stubborne mouths to twitch 
Then foaming tarre, their bridles they would champ, 
And trampling the fine element would fiercely ramp. 

—Spencer. 



CLASS-BOOK OF METHODS. 79 

lo. A fellow says : "I owu no school or college ; 
No master lives whom I acknowledge ; 
And pray, don't entertain the thought 
That of the dead I e'er learned aught." 
This, if I rightly understand. 
Means: "I'm a blockhead at first hand." 

— (iCETHE. 

10. There are some qualities— some incorpoi-ate things, 
That have a double life, which thus is made 
A type of twin entity which springs 
From matter and light, evinced in solid shade. 

— E. A. PoE. 

17. Vastucss ! and Age ! and memories of Eld ! 
Silence and Desolation ! and dim Night ! 
1 feel ye now— I feel ye in your strength— 
O spells more sure than e'er .Tudean king 
Taught in tlie g.-irdens of Getlisemane ! 
O charms more potent than the rapt Chaldee 
Ever drew down from out the quiet stars ! 

—Id. 

18 And now I venture to assert, that the exercise of pri- 

vate judgment, faithfully gone about, does by no means 
necessarily end in selfish independence, isolation ; but 
rather ends necessarily in tiie opposite of that.— Oak- 

LYLE. 

19. In every government, though terrors reign, 
Tliougli tyrant k ngs, or tyrant laws restrain. 
How small, of all that human hearts endure. 
That part which laws or kings can cause or cure ! 

—Dr. Johnso.v. 

20. A man that hath no virtue in himself ever envleth 
virtue in others ; for men's minds either feed upon their 
own good or upon other.^' evil ; and who wanteth the 
one will prey upon the other.— Lord Bacon. 

21. Thus, whether they exalt or deplore them, whether 
they bless or curse them, all parties, in considering revo- 
lutions, forget all the circumstances, alike isolate them 
absolutely from the past, alike make them in them- 
selves responsible for the destiny of the world, and load 
them with anathema or crown them with glory.— Gui- 

ZOT. 



80 ENaLISH GRAMMER. 

21. Matrimony was always one of ray favorite topics, and 
I wrote several sermons to prove its happiness ; but there 
was a peculiar tenet which I made a point of suppoi'ting ; 
for I maintained with Whiston, that it was unlawful 
for a priest of the church of England, after the death of 
his first wife to take a second ; or to express it in one 
word, I valued myself on being a strict monogamist.— 
Goldsmith. 

22. What a world of images, of sentiments, of thoughts at 
once distinct and confused, are excited within us by this 
one word— country ! and by this other word, brief and 
immense,— God !— Cousin. 

23. We have already seen the enthusiasm with which 
Rheticus. wlio was Copernicus's pupil in the later years 
of his life speaks of him. "Thus," he says, "God has 

•given to my excellent preceptor a reien without end; 
which may He vouchsafe to guide, govern, and increase, 
to the restoration of astronomical truth. Amen."— 
Whewell. 



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